Spelling– set of norms or rules of practical writing, consisting of: 1) rules for the use of letters of the alphabet when writing words, their forms and combinations; 2) the rules for writing words and phrases, regardless of the letters included in their spelling.
Spelling rules are governed by certain principles.
The first principle is phonemic, second - phonetic. The phonemic principle of writing is that each phoneme is expressed by the same letter, no matter what position it is in. The phonetic principle is that the actual sounds are displayed with letters. In accordance with this, phonemic and phonetic spellings coincide in strong positions, but differ in weak positions.
The third and fourth principles of spelling - etymological and traditional-historical- are based on the fact that the letter reflects not the current state, but the past: bees instead of bees; Church Slavonic assistant instead of etymological assistant or phonemic assistant.
Fifth and sixth principles - morphological and symbolic- consist in the desire to convey the language not through phonetics. At the same time, morphological spellings reflect grammar, bypassing phonetics, and symbolic spellings tend to distinguish lexical homonyms, phonetically, as a rule, indistinguishable. The symbolic principle of writing is associated with the manifestation of a kind of ideography.
In any spelling there is a combination different principles, but the leading principle stands out.
14. Punctuation. Principles of punctuation: logical, syntactic, intonation. Types of punctuation marks: highlighting, separating.
The principles on which the entire system of punctuation rules is based were gradually comprehended. So, V.K. Trediakovsky believed that “punctuation is words, members and whole speeches, division, depicted by certain signs, in reading to the concept of content and to rest serving, also indicating the order of composition.” In other words, V. K. Trediakovsky saw the purpose of punctuation (“punctuation”) in the semantic, intonational and syntactic division of speech. M. V. Lomonosov emphasized semantic and syntactic functions punctuation marks: "lowercase signs are placed according to the strength of the mind and according to its disposition to unions."
In Russian linguistics, there are three main areas in understanding the principles of punctuation: logical(semantic) syntactic and intonational.
Supporters logical directions consider the semantic articulation of speech and transmission as the main purpose of punctuation semantic relations dismembered parts. These include F. I. Busulaev, D. N. Ovsyaniko-Kulikovskiy, P. N. Sakulin.
F. I. Busulaev, in the question of the use of punctuation marks, wrote, “Since one person conveys thoughts and feelings to another through language, punctuation marks have a dual purpose: 1) contribute to clarity in the presentation of thoughts, separating one sentence from another or one part from another, and 2) express the sensations of the speaker's face and his attitude towards the listener.
syntactic we find an understanding of the words of punctuation in J. K. Grot and S. K. Bulich, who believed that punctuation makes the syntactic structure of speech visual.
In the works of Groth, it is important to point out the connection between the punctuation system and general character syntactic structure of the sentence and writing. He draws attention to the trend in contemporary literature towards the rejection of "too complex or common sentences" and towards the use of "more abrupt speech". “Jerky speech consists in expressing, for greater simplicity and clarity of presentation, as far as possible short sentences and thus allow the reader to stop more often. In relation to the use of punctuation marks, this means: between two points not to accumulate too many sentences that are mutually dependent or closely connected with each other, and at the same time arrange them so that they can determine one from the other according to at least semicolon or colon. Immoderate set subordinate clauses between the main ones confuses and obscures speech.
Grotto outlined punctuation rules with punctuation marks: for each character, all cases of its use are indicated; each rule is illustrated by one or more examples from the works of the late 18th century and the first half of the 19th century, but due to Grot's disposition to the authors more late period some of its rules were obsolete by the end of the 19th century.
Nevertheless, Grotov's rules of punctuation, together with his spelling rules, as already mentioned above, entered the everyday life of the school, and through it into the practice of printing. For everyday use, they turned out to be quite clear and convenient, as they were based on the syntactic structure of the sentence, which writers learned in school course grammar. But in fact, all writers, in addition to the rules of punctuation known to them, are also guided by some indications of rhythmic melody, coming from oral pronunciation, when setting punctuation marks. The writer mentally (and sometimes aloud) pronounces a sentence or part of it in order to clarify for himself which punctuation mark should be put in this or that case. Since the pauses and intonation of oral speech in many cases really express the relationships that are contained in the sentence, it is quite natural to refer to these indicators.
Broadcast intonation side of speech seems to be the main task of punctuation to A. Kh. Vostkov, I. I. Davydov, A. M. Peshkovsky, L. V. Shcherba.
Punctuation is closely related to intonation. However, it cannot be argued that punctuation is subordinate to intonation and that intonation is the main basis punctuation, although some Russian linguists supported this opinion.
Contemporary Russian spelling based on certain principles. To understand the principle of spelling means to see its system and perceive each of its separate rule as part of the system, to understand the spelling rule and each spelling in the relationships of grammar, etymology, and the history of the language. In the theory of Russian spelling, morphological, phonetic, traditional principles, as well as differentiating spellings are indicated.
Morphological the principle of spelling implies a uniform, same spelling morphemes - root, prefix, suffix, ending, regardless of phonetic changes in sounding word occurring during the formation related words or word forms, that is, regardless of positional alternations, other traditional inconsistencies in writing and pronunciation. These inconsistencies include: all cases of unstressed vowels in different morphemes - root, prefix, suffix, ending, stunning of voiced consonants and voicing of voiceless before paired voiceless and voiced consonants, stunning at the absolute end of a word; orthoepic, traditional pronunciation of many words and combinations.
Checking spelling, written on a morphological basis, includes: firstly: meaning understanding checked word or phrase, without which it is impossible to find a related test word, define case form, given name etc.; Secondly: analysis morphological word composition, the ability to determine the place of the spelling, which is important for the selection and application of the rule; third: phonetic analysis, definitions syllabic composition, stressed and unstressed syllables, highlighting vowels and consonants, understanding the weak and strong positions of phonemes, positional alternations and their causes; fourth, grammar analysis words (phrases) - definition of a part of speech, word form, for example: a noun, first declension, is in dp, singular, etc.
The leading position of the morphological principle of Russian spelling also determines the methodology for teaching spelling: the latter is based on a conscious, analytical approach to the language, on understanding the meanings of words and their combinations, text, grammatical categories and forms, the phonemic composition of the word.
The morphological principle corresponds to the following orthographic topics studied in primary school: spelling of unstressed vowels, voiced and voiceless consonants, unpronounceable consonants, except unverifiable words, which are written according to a different principle; spelling of unstressed vowels, voiced and voiceless consonants in prefixes and suffixes, at the junctions of morphemes (except for some cases, for example, prefixes on “-z”, which are written according to a different principle, this case is not studied in primary grades); spelling of unstressed vowels in the endings of word forms: in case endings 1st, 2nd and 3rd declensions of nouns, in case endings of adjectives, in personal endings of verbs of the 1st and 2nd conjugations of the present and future tenses; transfer of words from line to line, since during transfer not only syllabic, but also morphemic division of words is observed; to a certain extent, the morphological principle also operates in merged-separate spellings words, in particular, in distinguishing between prefixes and prepositions, as well as in the use of "Ъ" after prefixes, since the application of the relevant rules requires morphemic analysis words and definitions morphological features.
Even such orthographic topics as the designation of the softness of consonants in writing, the use capital letter in names, double consonants also rely on morphological knowledge and skills of children.
So, the morphological principle is the basic principle of Russian orthography. As mentioned above, its essence lies in the fact that all significant parts of the word (roots, prefixes, suffixes, inflections) repeated in different words ah and forms, are always written the same way, regardless of how they are pronounced in one position or another (see Appendix 1).
The unity of the spelling appearance of morphemes is achieved by the fact that the letter indicates not the pronunciation in a particular case, but the phonemic composition of the morpheme, formed strong phonemes. Therefore, the basic principle of Russian spelling can also be called phonetic, meaning by this the principle of transmitting the phonemic composition of a morpheme in writing.
Deviations from the basic principle of Russian spelling are phonetic and traditional-historical principles.
Consider further phonetic principle. It is assumed that originally originated in different peoples sound-letter writing has always been phonetic: each sound of speech was recorded the way it sounds, the way the writer hears it. And in modern Russian writing there are many such spellings where there are no discrepancies between sound and writing: “moon”; "chair", "we", "cancer" and many others. In most words, along with checked or unchecked spellings, other sounds are denoted by letters, in essence, according to phonetic principle. So, in the word "car" the sound [a] is unstressed, it is considered unverifiable, the letter -a- is written according to tradition, but the rest of the letters given word written according to sound. In essence, all these spellings should not be called phonetic, but phonetic-graphic.
Phonetic-graphic spellings do not cause writing difficulties, so usually they are simply not noticed; but in primary school their role is very great. Phonetic-graphic spellings do not contradict the morphological principle of Russian spelling, since they do not lead to unequal spelling of morphemes. But their danger is that they still create in students the illusion of well-being, the illusion that the letter corresponds to the sound, which in reality is far from always the case.
Cases like "table", "hand", "lamp" ( phonetic spellings) reflect the phonemic composition of these words and do not oppose the morphological principle of orthography. So, the phonetic principle of Russian spelling is that sounds are written in words as they are heard, i.e. writing conveys the sound of the word. Appendix B discusses spellings based on the phonetic principle.
In the system of spelling rules, there are also those that are based on the phonetic principle and are in sharp contradiction with the leading, morphological principle. The contradiction is that morphemes (in this case- prefixes na- -z) are not written uniformly, but depending on the pronunciation, reflecting the positional alternation. Prefixes from-, is-, times-, race-, vz-, sun-, through-, through- and others do not obey the morphological principle. According to the rule, these prefixes are written with the letter Z before vowels or voiced consonants, and in other cases - with the letter C: "nameless, but" endless ". It is easy to see that the spelling З- (С- in this example corresponds to the pronunciation, that is, it is subject to the phonetic principle.
The rules based on the phonetic principle and contradicting the morphological one cause difficulties for students, destroy their ideas about the spelling system that have just begun to form, contradict general principle checking vowels and consonants in weak positions.
Since the rules based on the phonetic principle contradict the understanding of the Russian spelling system that is being formed in children and, in general, are difficult to learn, then in the course elementary school they are not studied. But the words containing such orthograms, younger students meet in written speech and write them, assimilating practical basis by memorization.
It can be emphasized that cases similar to the spelling of prefixes on -з- are not numerous: other principles of orthography, in general, do not contradict, but, on the contrary, support the morphological principle of Prussian orthography. This is the third principle traditional(historical). According to this principle, many words are written according to tradition, without checking the rules.
Words that are not checked by the rules are very numerous: in a text characteristic of written speech junior schoolchildren, their number reaches 20% (many of these words later, in high school, will become verifiable for students). For the most part, these are words borrowed from other languages. Many of them entered the Russian language relatively recently: "bath" - German, "suitcase" - Persian, others in old times: “watermelon”, “balyk”, “sheepskin coat” - Turkic. and etc.
Many of the spellings considered traditional can in fact be checked against the source language: "cardboard" from Latin; "suit" - from French, etc.
Sometimes spellings considered traditional can be verified based on knowledge of the history of the etymology of words and historical changes in the phonetics of the Russian language: “rooster” - from the old Russian “petit”, “peas” - contains the full vowel -oro-, in which there is no -a-. Appendix B describes spellings based on the traditional-historical principle.
So, traditional-historical spellings are spellings that do not depend on either morphemes or pronunciations, but the writing is preserved according to tradition.
Within the framework of the traditional principle, which on the whole does not contradict the general rules of Russian writing and the leading principle of Russian spelling - morphological, there are several cases that contradict the general system.
The traditional spelling of the combinations ZhI, SHI, with the letter “i”, CHA, SCHA, with the letter “a”, CHU, SCHU with the letter “y” contradicts general rule Russian orthography, according to which after hard consonants one should write not “i”, but “s”, after soft ones - not “u”, “a”, but “u”, “i”.
In the primary grades, the spelling of these combinations is memorized without any explanation, and, of course, cannot but damage the formation of the concept of the spelling system in the minds of students.
Morphological principle contradicts traditional spelling separate words: "Kalach" (according to the morphological principle, one should write "Kalach").
If morphological spellings are checked and assimilated on the basis of phonetic, word-formation and grammatical analysis of words and their combinations, then traditional spellings are mainly based on memorization, in the order of the so-called vocabulary and spelling work. Memorization in elementary grades plays important role, they cannot be neglected, on the contrary, it is necessary to develop a deep system of motivations, game methods that make it easier for children to memorize words with difficult spellings.
With the development of phonology, with the introduction of the concept of phoneme into scientific use, a new, phonemic principle was proposed, which some linguists define as the basic principle of Russian orthography. But, as mentioned above, the leading role in spell checking belongs to the morphological approach: you need to know whether the spelling is in the root, suffix, prefix or ending. And without a morphological approach, the phonemic method of verification is blind and applicable only in the simplest, most obvious cases such as “water” - “waters” or “meadow” - “meadows”.
It is impossible to check the spelling of words [p shot], [long], [shut] and many other spellings, if you do not resort to morphological analysis. The morphological principle explains all these cases; in other words, the morphological principle is wider than the phonemic one, it covers much large quantity spelling than phonetic. Majority authors teaching aids for universities consider morphological and phonemic principles in close connection, but however not equal, since the phonetic principle is part of the morphological one.
How pedagogical science, and school practice in last years made significant progress in defining rational ways formation of schoolchildren's learning skills. The data of studies conducted by psychologists and methodologists confirm that only a system of exercises provides students with the skills of literate writing.
Modern Russian spelling is regulated by the "Rules of Russian Spelling and Punctuation", in force since 1956. The adoption of these rules was at one time very importance to streamline Russian writing. It was the first obligatory, legislatively fixed set of rules that eliminated significant inconsistency in Russian spelling. For example, we wrote earlier: go and go, come and come, pince-nez and pince-nez, diet and diet, dance and dance, growl and wooden, plank and plank, freckled and freckled, damn and damn, once and just; some borrowed words were written with one consonant letter, then with two: il (l) adjustment, differentiate (f) erentsirovat, coefficient (f) icient, paral (l) elogram (m) and etc.
Orthographic principles are the guiding ideas for the choice of letters by a native speaker where the sound can be variably indicated.
The nature and system of Russian spelling is revealed with the help of its principles: morphological, phonemic, phonetic, traditional (historical) and the principle of differentiation of meanings.
Spelling rules can be based on various principles.
At its core, Russian spelling is morphological, respectively main principle Russian orthography is a morphological principle. Its essence lies in the fact that it requires the unity of writing the meaningful parts of the word. Writing, for example, the root
-house- is preserved in all single-root words, despite the fact that its pronunciation in different words of this series is different (cf .: at home, home, brownie, housewife, etc.).
In the same way, the unity of the spelling of most suffixes, prefixes and endings is observed. This principle links single word with related words.
The morphological principle requires that the spell checker be oriented towards morphemic composition words, it implies uniformity, the same spelling of morphemes: root, prefix, suffix, ending, regardless of positional alternations (phonetic changes) in the sounding word that occur during the formation of related words or word forms. These inconsistencies in writing and pronunciation include: unstressed vowels in different morphemes - in the root, prefix, suffix, ending; stunning voiced and voicing deaf consonants in weak positions; unpronounceable consonants; orthoepic, traditional pronunciation of many words and combinations: [sinieva] - blue, [kan`eshna] - of course, and many others. others
Spelling based on morphological principle, outwardly disagrees with pronunciation, but not sharply and only in certain parts of speech. At the same time, the discrepancy between spelling and pronunciation is carried out with morphological writing on the basis of strictly defined relationships with pronunciation. Morphological writing is a consequence of the understanding by the seeker of the structural division of the word into its significant parts (morphemes) and results in the most uniform transmission of these parts in writing. Way of writing with a uniform graphic transmission meaningful parts words makes it easier to "grasp" the meaning when reading.
The preservation of the graphic unity of the same morphemes in writing, where possible, is feature Russian spelling. The uniformity of the spellings of significant parts of words is achieved by the fact that positional alternations of vowels and consonants are not reflected in Russian writing.
Checking spelling, written according to the morphological principle, includes:
- a) understanding the meaning of the word or combination of words being checked, without which it is impossible to select a related test word, determine grammatical form words, etc.;
- b) analysis of the morphemic composition of the word, the ability to determine the place of the spelling - in the root, in the prefix, in the suffix, in the ending, which is necessary for choosing and applying the rule;
- c) phonetic analysis, determination of stressed and unstressed syllables, selection of vowels and consonants, understanding of strong and weak phonemes, positional alternations and their causes. Next - the solution of the spelling problem according to the algorithm.
It should be noted that the assimilation of spellings corresponding to the morphological principle cannot be effective without strong speech skills of students: the choice of words, the formation of their forms, the construction of phrases, sentences.
Since ancient times, the morphological principle in spelling has been considered the main, leading one, since it ensures the leading role of semantics. But in recent decades a new, phonemic principle claims to be the leading principle.
The next principle we will consider is the phonemic principle.
In modern phonology (a branch of linguistics that studies the structure of the sound system of a language and the functioning of sounds in language system) it is generally accepted that if two or more sounds alternate positionally, then in the language system they are an identity. This is a phoneme - a linguistic unit, represented by a number of positionally alternating sounds. Yes, phoneme [about] can be represented by the following sounds, regularly reproduced in the speech of native speakers of the Russian language: strong position - under stress [house]; weak position- unstressed [lady].
The phonemic principle of spelling says: the same letter denotes a phoneme (not a sound!) In strong and weak positions. Russian graphics are phonemic: the letter denotes in its strong version and in a weak position also in the same morpheme, of course. The phoneme is a semantic distinction. The letter, fixing the phoneme, provides a unified understanding of the meaning of the morpheme (for example, the root) regardless of the variants of its sound.
The phonemic principle explains basically the same orthograms as the morphological principle, but from a different point of view, and this allows a deeper understanding of the nature of orthography. He more specifically explains why, when checking an unstressed vowel, one should focus on the stressed variant, on the strong position of the morpheme.
The phonemic principle allows you to combine many disparate rules: checking unstressed vowels, voiced and voiceless consonants, unpronounceable consonants; contributes to the understanding of the system in spelling.
Morphological and phonemic principles do not contradict each other, but deepen each other. Checking vowels and consonants in a weak position through a strong one - from phonemic; reliance on the morphemic composition of the word, on parts of speech and their forms - from the morphological principle.
Through the uniform designation of morphemes, uniform spelling words, which is ultimate goal spelling.
The morphological principle of spelling is characterized by high meaningfulness and considerable simplicity. Orthography based on the morphological principle seems to be the most perfect and promising.
However, the morphological principle does not cover all spellings without exception. There are cases when spellings do not obey him and even contradict. Therefore, along with the morphological, phonetic, traditional (historical) and differentiating principles are distinguished.
The phonetic principle defines such a letter, in which the letters are sequentially denoted by the sounds actually pronounced in each specific case, i.e. The basis for spelling is pronunciation. The phonetic principle is used in Serbian, Belarusian, and partly in Russian. According to this principle, in Russian they are written:
- a) final consonants in prefixes on s/c: cloudless, joyless, useless;
- b) spelling about or a, in the attachment times- - races-, roses- - roses-
search - find, placer - scatter
in) s after c: gypsies, cucumbers, sinitsyn.
Russian spelling developed in the process of a long historical development, so there are quite a lot of spellings in it that no longer correspond to either its main principle or current situation affairs. Yes, in Old Russian sounds and and w were soft and after them it was necessary to write and. In modern Russian, these sounds are already solid, but we, paying tribute to tradition, continue to write after them s, a and: live, sew. The old spelling of adjective endings is also preserved.
-wow, -his, although in modern language on the spot G we pronounce in. Writings explained by the history of the language, the history of the word, are called traditional.
According to the traditional principle, the word is written as it was written in the old days or as in the language from which it is borrowed. This principle is sometimes called historical, because traditional spellings developed historically, some of them can be explained by the action of historical phonetic patterns.
Sometimes these spellings are called etymological, because. they reflect the history of words. But traditional spellings do not always reflect the etymology of words, and often directly contradict it:
tomorrowa by tomorrowabout to (forat trabout k, morning)
toa lach toabout lach (about)
sta can stabout kan (drain, drain)
The traditional principle of spelling is to preserve spellings that are inexplicable in terms of modern pronunciation or modern structure the words. These spellings are memorable.
The spoken form of a language changes much faster than the written form because oral speech changes spontaneously while spelling norm created consciously, changes are made to it only when the contradiction between spelling and pronunciation becomes obvious. For this reason, languages with a long written tradition often retain spellings that are not justified by the current state of the language.
The traditional principle of spelling is not motivated by the laws of language. It reflects the tradition that has arisen in written communication.
The differentiating principle is the spelling of two words or forms that are phonetically the same but have different meanings, i.e. are homophones:
dew (dew) - roses (rose), cold - (to be cold) - from the rear (rear), arson (n.) - set fire to (verb).
The differentiating principle has a small radius of action, determining the spelling of homonyms. In accordance with this principle, spelling reflects the desire to distinguish between homonyms, completely conveying their sound appearance by different graphic ways: burn - burn; ball - ball etc. The first pair of homonyms are homoforms (the sound of lexemes does not match in all word forms) related to various parts speech. In this case, the distinction between homoforms in writing corresponds to the grammatical principle: the vowel E is written in verbal word forms, the vowel O is written in noun word forms. The words of the second pair are not opposed by grammatical meanings, the words ball - ball are spelled differently according to the differentiating principle. This principle is secondary. It does not determine the graphic appearance of the word, but "layers" on phonetic and morphological principles. According to the differentiating principle, a morpheme has a constant plan of expression in writing(as the morphological principle also implies), however, the sound compositions of morphemes that coincide in oral, on the letter are transmitted different ways(which limits the scope of the phonetic principle) to reflect differences in lexical meaning.
The differentiating principle has a very narrow scope - the distinction in writing of some homonyms (homophones). Therefore, it is usually not even considered a principle, but only differentiating spellings are spoken of.
So, knowledge of the basic principles of Russian spelling allows us to generalize the studied rules, to find a single pattern in them. Spelling is essential to ensure meaningful communication.
In this way, spelling system Russian language defines a set of principles, the main of which is morphological.
The modern spelling norm requires knowledge,
firstly, more than a hundred spelling rules,
Secondly, a large number exceptions to the rules and
thirdly, the spelling of the so-called dictionary words, i.e. words whose spelling is not regulated by the rules.
The "Rules of Russian Spelling and Punctuation", published in 1956, were being prepared as early as the 1930s. It is clear that over time they are "behind the times", do not fully meet current state Russian language and spelling practice, and therefore need clarifications, amendments - after all, the language, for the written reflection of which the spelling rules are responsible, is in in constant motion, development.
Over the course of half a century, changes have naturally taken place in the language that loosen the rules of spelling, new words, types of words, constructions have appeared, the spelling of which is not regulated by the rules and therefore fluctuates. We see how many new words have entered the language in our time: dealer, killer, offshore, default, realtor, karate and many, many others. It is not always clear how to write them. Among these innovations are language units, standing on the verge between the word and part of the word: mini, midi, taxi, video, audio, media and other recurring first parts compound words. Naturally, in the Rules of 1956 one cannot find information on how to write them with the next part of the word - together or with a hyphen.
In the course of using the current rules, inaccuracies and inconsistencies were found in them, moreover, some linguistic phenomena were originally not covered by the rules. This causes difficulties for those who write and learn Russian writing, and provokes inconsistency in spelling practice. For example, in the Rules of 1956 there are only three words in which the letter must be written after a solid consonant e: mayor, peer and sir, while in spelling dictionary with a letter uh the words are also fixed master(?master, teacher?), plein air, racket and some others, more rare and highly specialized. The rulebook does not recommend the use of the letter th. It is clear that the 1956 Rules need some revision. It is fully justified and even necessary. The adoption of amendments, clarifications and additions to the spelling rules approved more than half a century ago is a completely natural thing: the letter should, although with a lag, but still “keep pace” with the language.
Basic principles of orthography
The first part of spelling is a letter designation sound composition words - this is its main part, since it more than the other parts corresponds to the general alpha-sound type of modern Russian writing and is directly related to the other two factors of writing - the alphabet and graphics. The basic principle of this part and Russian orthography as a whole is morphological.
The morphological principle of orthography consists in the requirement (or establishment) of a uniform (within positional alternation sounds) writing morphemes (each specific morpheme separately: a given root, a given suffix, etc.), even if they are pronounced differently when changing phonetic positions. For example: word root city should always be spelled the same city-, although in the composition of different words and word forms it is pronounced differently: [ burnt], [proud]a, [gard]a, at[gurt] etc. Through the uniform designation of morphemes, a uniform spelling of words is achieved, which is the ultimate goal of orthography.
But the morphological principle is not the only possible principle spelling of alphabetic-sound writing. In Russian writing, there are other principles of spelling: phonetic (or purely sound), phonemic (phonemic), historical (traditional), etc. (there is also a differentiating principle).
The phonetic principle of spelling focuses writing directly on pronunciation: its basic rule is "Write as you pronounce!". Uniform spelling of words is achieved in this case through a uniform designation individual sounds speech. The phonetic principle is used, for example, in Serbian and Belarusian spelling. In Russian writing, on the basis of this principle, spellings like vada, sat, gorat, drink etc. Prefixes are written phonetically h (With): distribute — pull apart and etc.
With the phonemic principle, the uniform spelling of words is achieved through the uniform designation of phonemes. Some researchers believe that modern Russian spelling is built on this principle. Is written mountain, garden, since in the roots of these words, from the point of view of the Moscow phonological school, phonemes /about/ and /d/. From point of view Petersburg school, here, respectively, phonemes /a/ and /t/. In general, it is very difficult to be guided by the phonemic principle.
The historical principle of orthography advocates the traditional spelling. His main requirement can be briefly expressed by the formula: "Write as you wrote before!" (This principle is widely used in English orthography.) Traditionally written about in words about din, about the weight, With about tank and etc.
The differentiating principle consists in distinguishing in writing what is indistinguishable in pronunciation, although different in meaning: to a company and to about company, pla h (n.) — pla whose (command, obl. verb), that w — that sh.
Guided by the phonetic principle, it is difficult to follow the pronunciation when writing. In addition, pronunciation does not have a strict uniformity: it is not without reason to say that everyone speaks and hears in his own way. If you are guided only by the phonetic principle, then it is almost impossible to achieve uniformity in writing.
The phonemic principle will require writers to write very complex and hard work on the translation of specific speech sounds - variants of phonemes - into phonemes. In addition, the question of the phonemic composition of words has not been resolved. Therefore, if the same facts of writing can be interpreted from the point of view of both phonemic and morphological principles, as noted for many spellings ( garden, mountain, watch etc.), it is easier to interpret them morphologically and consider the principle itself morphological.
The historical principle of orthography is designed mainly for memory and, as a result, is very irrational.
The differentiating principle has a very narrow scope - the distinction in writing of some homonyms (homophones). Therefore, it is usually not even considered a principle, but only differentiating spellings are spoken of.
Unlike other principles, the morphological principle of spelling is characterized by high meaningfulness and considerable simplicity. Orthography based on the morphological principle seems to be the most perfect and promising.
differential principle.
Traditional (traditional-historical) principle.
phonemic principle.
When writing a word, a letter does not indicate a phoneme, f sound. The spelling in this case is the same as phonetic transcription. The phonetic position is determined by:
1. Writing prefixes ending in z, s.
2. Writing prefixes times / roses, races / grew up.
3. Writing a letter s instead of initial and, in roots after a prefix ending in a solid consonant (play - play along).
4. Writing s after c in the endings of nouns, adjectives, in the roots of exception words.
Some scholars believe that the spelling of o, ё after pinching and q in suffixes and endings of nouns, adjectives, adverbs is also attributed to this principle.
5. Writing such as woo, wedding.
6. Writing borrowed words (transcribe).
The spelling of the words house, floor and the like are subject to a phonemic rather than a phonetic principle, in these spellings the sounds are in strong positions, where there is a maximum correspondence between sounds and letters.
It consists in the fact that the words are written as they were written before. Their spelling has been preserved according to the traditional, but it does not correspond to modern pronunciation. For example, writing and after the letter zh, c, writing an unchecked unstressed vowel, an unchecked vowel and the sound of noisy consonants.
Two equally pronounced words in writing are designated differently (spelling of homophones: fruit - raft, homoform: noun burn, burn - verb, pre- and pre-, etc.)
1. Phonetic principle- lies in the fact that when writing a word, a letter denotes not a phoneme, but a sound. The spelling in this case coincides with the phonetic transcription. It usually manifests itself when writing phonetic alternations in the same morpheme.
The phonetic principle describes:
1) writing prefixes ending in z, s
2) writing prefixes times, roses, races, grew up with vowels o, a
3) writing s instead of the initial and at the root after prefixes ending in a solid consonant (play - play along)
4) writing s after c in the endings of nouns, adjectives, at the root of exception words
5) some scholars believe that the spelling of o, e after hissing and q in suffixes, endings of nouns, adjectives, adverbs (stressed - unstressed)
6) writing consonants: swa t at - swa d bba
7) spelling of some borrowed words: transcription b transcribe - transcribe P tion
BUT!!! The spelling of the words house, gender and the like is subject to a phonemic, not a phonetic principle. In these spellings, sounds are in strong positions, where there is a maximum correspondence between letters and sounds.
2 . Phonemic principle- carried out in cases where the weak position of the phoneme can be unambiguously verified strong position in the same morpheme.
The phonemic principle of spelling determines the spelling of all morphemes of a word: prefixes, roots, suffixes, endings. So, in the suffix of the words birches ov oh, donkey ov th is pronounced [ъ], but we write o, since in the same suffix it is pronounced [o] under stress: oak ov th.
The phonemic principle of orthography ensures the uniform spelling of the same morpheme in the forms of the same word and in different words. Yes, root. -city- it is written the same way in the composition of different words and word forms, although it is pronounced differently: [gort], [gord] a, at [ggrt].
Determines the spelling of most spelling letters, so this is the basic principle of conveying the phonemic composition of words by letters.
3. differentiating principle- distinguishes in writing word forms that coincide in phonemic composition (homophones, homoforms): about g - wow yo g, tush - tush b, crying - crying b, rye - rye b, to P chik - ko b chik, k about campaign - to a campaign.
Differentiating spellings usually arise as a result of applying different principles of graphics and spelling to words with the same phonemic composition (о in the root of the word burn corresponds to the phonemic principle, ё in the root of the word burn corresponds to the morphematic principle).
