The concept of "activity" along with such concepts as "consciousness", "personality", "communication" is fundamental in psychology. The introduction of the category of activity into psychological science has changed the idea of the mental as a specific phenomenon that has the status of an epiphenomenon (an accompanying, side effect). An analysis of activity and the characteristics of its influence on the psyche made it possible to approach the study of the psyche in a different way. It began to be seen both as a result and as a process.
An outstanding domestic psychologist A.N. Leontiev offers the following definitions of activity: “Activity is a molar, non-additive unit of life of a bodily, material subject. In a narrower sense, i.e. on psychological level, is a unit of life mediated by mental reflection, the real function of which is that it orients the subject in the objective world. In other words, activity is not a reaction and not a set of reactions, but a system that has a structure, its own internal transitions and transformations, their development. No matter what conditions and forms human activity takes place, no matter what structure it acquires, it cannot be regarded as withdrawn from social relations, from the life of society. For all its originality, human activity is a system included in the system of social relations. Outside of these relationships, human activity does not exist at all.
When defining activity and characterizing its main properties, disclosure of the relationship between two concepts - “activity” and “activity” is of particular importance. Under the activity is usually understood almost any form of interaction of the subject with the environment. In this sense, activity acts as a generic category in relation to the concept of "activity". The forms and manifestations of activity are extremely diverse and are classified according to very many reasons. There are behavioral and activity activity, conscious and unconscious, adaptive and maladaptive, situational and supra-situational, constructive and destructive, etc. The term "activity" can also be used in relation to the personality as a whole, and its individual subsystems and even functional organs (for , analyzers). "Activity" as the most generalized category that describes the totality of forms of human interaction with the environment, is most adequately revealed from the standpoint of its level understanding. According to this interpretation, all the main forms of activity simultaneously act as its main levels, which in turn form a certain hierarchy. The highest level in it is the behavioral, socially determined activity of the individual: the lowest is the activity of the individual's local subsystems (analyzer, motor, homeostatic, etc.).
Thus, activity can be defined as a form of an active attitude of the subject to reality, aimed at achieving consciously set goals and associated with the creation of socially significant values or the development social experience(V.D. Shadrikov). Activity is not just one of the forms of relationship, it is a very specific form of relationship that has only its own characteristics.
The main characteristic of activity is its objectivity. The concept of an object is contained in the very concept of activity. The expression "non-objective activity" is devoid of any meaning - activity cannot be non-objective, it can only appear as such. The object of activity acts in two ways: firstly - in its independent existence, as subordinating and transforming the activity of the subject, secondarily - as an image of the object, a product of the mental reflection of its properties, which is carried out as a result of the activity of the subject and cannot be realized otherwise.
The second specific feature of activity is that it is regulated not by human needs as such, but by a perceived goal as an ideal image of the future result (the desire to produce a product, gain knowledge, etc.). The goal is the so-called system-forming factor activities, i.e. the main criterion for determining its content, structure and dynamics. This is the most important difference activities from other forms of human activity (impulsive, involuntary activity). Why a person acts in a certain way is not the same as what he acts for. The most important activity phenomenon arises - the phenomenon of the discrepancy between the needs, motives of a person and the immediate goals of his activity.
The third specific property of activity is its social conditioning. A person finds in society not just external conditions to which he must adapt his activity, but social conditions they themselves carry the motives and goals of his activity, its means and methods. In essence, society produces the activity of the individuals that form it. However, this does not mean that activity only personifies the relations of society and its culture. These concepts are interconnected by complex transformations and transitions, and direct mixing one to the other is impossible.
And, finally, the fourth feature of the activity is its systematic nature. Activity appears not as a simple sum of its components, but as their organized integrity. It is important to note that an activity as a whole has properties that neither its individual components nor their simple sum have.
The systematic nature of the organization of activity determines the existence of two main plans for its psychological analysis - external (subject-effective) and internal (actually psychological).
The main thing that distinguishes one activity from another is its subject. It is the object of activity that gives it a certain direction. According to the terminology proposed by A.N. Leontiev, the subject of activity is its real motive. It can be material and ideal, given in perception and existing only in the imagination, in thought - the main thing is that it always meets one or another need and is prerequisite activities. There is no activity without a motive: “unmotivated” activity is not an activity devoid of a motive, but an activity with a subjectively and objectively hidden motive.
The main "components" of the activity are the actions that carry it out. An action is a process that is subordinate to the idea of the result to be achieved, i.e. process for a conscious purpose. Just as the concept of motive is related to the concept of activity, the concept of purpose is related to the concept of action.
The identification of goals and the formation of actions subordinate to them leads to the fact that there is a kind of splitting of functions previously merged with each other in the motive. The function of motivation is completely retained by the motive. The direction function is presented differently: the actions that carry out the activity are motivated by its motive, but are aimed at the goal.
Isolation of purposeful actions as components of the content specific activities leads to the question of linking them internal relations. As noted earlier, activity is not an additive process. Human activity does not exist except in the form of an action or a chain of actions. If you mentally exclude from it the actions that carry it out, then nothing will remain of the activity. This idea can be expressed differently: any specific process - external or internal - from the side of the relationship to the motive acts as a human activity, and from the side of the relationship to the goal - as an action or a set of actions. At the same time, activity and action are genuine and non-coinciding realities. Action is relatively independent: it can carry out different activities and move from one activity to another.
Of fundamental importance is the fact that goals are not invented, not arbitrarily set by the subject - they are given in objective circumstances - however, the selection and awareness of goals is not an automatic and not a one-time act, but a relatively long process of testing goals by action.
An important aspect of the process of goal formation is also the concretization of the goal, i.e. in highlighting the conditions for its achievement. In addition to its intentional aspect (what should be achieved?), the action also has its operational aspect (how, in what way can this be achieved?), which is determined not by the goal itself, but objectively. subject conditions her achievements. In other words, the ongoing action corresponds to the task: the task is the goal given in certain conditions. Therefore, the action has a special "generator" - the ways in which it is carried out. A.N.Leontiev called the ways of carrying out the action operations.
The terms "action" and "operation" are often used interchangeably. However, in the context of the psychological analysis of activity, their clear distinction is absolutely necessary. Actions are relative to goals, operations are relative to conditions. If the goal remains unchanged, and the conditions under which it is given undergo changes, then it is the operational composition of the action that changes.
Thus, in the general flow of activity that forms human life in its higher manifestations mediated by psychic reflection, analysis identifies individual activities that are correlated with the motives that awaken them: actions that are subordinate to conscious goals, and operations that directly depend on the conditions for achieving a specific goal.
These "units" of human activity form its macrostructure. Activity is a process characterized by ongoing transformations. An activity may lose the motive that brought it to life (then it will turn into an action that realizes, perhaps, a completely different attitude to the world, another activity), the action can acquire an independent motivating force and become a special activity, and finally, the action can be transformed into a way to achieve Goals, into an operation capable of realizing various actions.
The mobility of individual "forming" systems of activity is also expressed in the fact that each of them can become more fractional or, conversely, include units that were previously relatively independent. So, in the course of achieving common purpose there may be an allocation of intermediate goals, as a result of which a holistic action is divided into a number of separate sequential actions - this is especially characteristic when an action is carried out under conditions that make it difficult to perform it with the help of already formed operations. The opposite process takes place in the case when the objectively achieved intermediate results merge with each other and cease to be realized by the subject.
Isolation in the activity of the "units" that form it is of paramount importance for solving the problem of unity of external and internal processes of activity in their form. There are separate activities, all links of which are internal, for example, cognitive activity. There are cases when the internal activity that corresponds to the cognitive motive is realized by processes that are external in form - these can be either external actions or external motor operations. The same applies to external activities: some of the activities and operations that carry out external activities may take the form of internal, mental processes. The generality of the macrostructure of external, practical, and internal, theoretical activity allows for its primary analysis, abstracting from the form in which it proceeds. Singling out actions and operations in activity does not exhaust its analysis. Behind the activity and regulating it mental images the grandiose physiological work of the brain opens up.
11.2. Classification of activities and human behavior.
Human activity is not only extremely complex in content and structure, but also extremely diverse in its general varieties and specific manifestations. Traditionally, it is considered that the main division of activity into its types is differentiation into labor, educational and play activities.
Labor activity is a process of active change in objects of nature, material and spiritual life of society in order to meet human needs and create various values.
Educational activity is the process of mastering subject and cognitive actions. which is based on the mechanisms of transformation of digestible material, excretion basic relations between the subject conditions of the situation in order to solve typical problems in changed conditions, generalize the principle of solution, model the process of solving the problem and control it.
A game- special process, in which typical ways of action and interaction of people have historically been fixed; the inclusion of a child in play activities provides an opportunity to master the social experience accumulated by mankind, as well as cognitive, personal and moral development child. Of particular importance is the role-playing game, during which the child assumes the roles of adults and acts with objects in accordance with the assigned meanings. The mechanism of assimilation of social roles through role-playing games provides an opportunity for the socialization of the individual, as well as the development of its motivational-required sphere.
Labor activity is distinguished by the fact that it involves the receipt of any socially significant product, result. For educational and gaming activities, this result is not socially significant, but individually significant and consists in the development by the subject of socially developed experience, knowledge, etc. A specific sign of gaming activity is that its main motive is the process of activity itself, and not its result.
Communication, or communicative activity, is also called as a type of activity that is especially significant for the life and development of the individual.
These activities have different meaning for human development at different stages of ontogeny. The activity, the performance of which determines the emergence and formation of the main psychological neoplasms of a person at a certain stage of ontogenetic development, is called the leading activity.
Studying the connection between the individual life of a person and the socio-historical practice of people, psychologists found it expedient to distinguish between individual and joint types of activity. Unlike individual activities implemented by one person, joint activities are carried out by the so-called collective subject, i.e. two or more people with a common motive and a common goal.
Other important features of joint activities are the spatial and temporal presence of participants in the activity, the role and instrumental differentiation of participants, the presence of a managing and organizing component - a leader or manager. Joint activity is internally heterogeneous and is divided into subtypes: for example, directly-joint - "activity together" and indirectly-joint - "activity side by side".
An extremely general dichotomous division of activities into external and internal is also practiced. At the same time, external activity is understood as all types, types and processes of activity that are accompanied by explicated ones, i.e. objectified, manifestations of its performing components - movements, actions, expression, communications, etc.
Internal activity unfolds on an intrapsychic plane, and the term “mental activity” is often used as its synonym, which, however, is not entirely correct. It is also commonly believed that between external and internal activities there is a genetic connection, since the second is formed in the process of ontogenesis on the basis of the first through the mechanism of internalization. At the same time, it is emphasized that internalization does not consist in a simple movement of external activity into inner plan consciousness, but in the formation of this consciousness itself.
The question of the relationship between the concepts of “behavior” and “activity” is difficult in psychology. Some researchers use these terms as synonyms, while others, on the contrary, directly oppose them to each other, emphasizing the pronounced active nature of activity and reactive (as a response to environmental influences). ) the nature of the behavior.
In its most general form, behavior is understood as the externally observed motor activity of living beings, caused by the need to adapt in the name of the survival and continuation of the species. At the same time, when people talk about human behavior, they always emphasize its social character and social conditioning. Thus, human behavior acquires the characteristics of a conscious, collective, goal-setting, voluntary and creative activity.
At the level of socially determined activity, the term "behavior" denotes the actions of a person in relation to society and other people, considered from the side of their regulation by social norms of morality and law. The units of behavior are actions in which the position of the individual and his moral convictions are formed and expressed.
A social norm is a model of what should be, a generally valid rule of behavior established by social groups and society. From the point of view of observance of social norms and values, social and asocial behavior of a person is distinguished. Social behavior can be mass-like, organizational, group, role-playing, social, altruistic, ritual, economic. consumer, manipulative, conflict, assertive, etc. antisocial behavior subdivided into deviant and delinquent behavior.
Ignoring existing social norms and social expectations characterizes deviant (from Latin deviatio - deviation, evasion) behavior, which is a form of disorganization of the behavior of an individual or group, revealing a discrepancy between established expectations, moral and legal requirements of society. Various deviations often occur in adolescence, expressed in such forms as lies, rudeness, aggressiveness, smoking, fights, omissions schoolwork, drug addiction, alcoholism, running away from home, vagrancy.
Delinquent (from lat. delictum - a misdemeanor, an offense) is a consciously carried out behavior, the purpose of which is the destruction, change, replacement of the norms adopted by this social institution. If the criterion deviant behavior is an act, then the criterion of delinquent behavior is a crime. Delinquent behavior is associated with a violation of a social norm that has severe sanctions, i.e. criminal norm, and manifests itself in the intention to cause damage, harm to another person or group of people.
11.3. The idea of a motive. Theories of motivation.
IN modern psychology the term "motive" ("motivating factor") refers to completely different phenomena, such as instinctive impulses, biological drives, interests, desires, life goals and ideals. A.N.Leontiev believed that the motives of activity are determined by the needs of the individual. In the need state of the subject, an object that is able to satisfy the need is not rigidly fixed. Prior to its first satisfaction, the need "does not know" its object, it must still be discovered. Only as a result of such a discovery, the need acquires objectivity, and the perceived (imagined, conceivable) object - the motivating and guiding activity of the function, giving it the status of a motive.
Unlike the needs of animals, whose development depends on the expansion of the range of natural objects they consume, human needs are generated by the development of production. In other words, consumption is mediated by the need for an object, its perception or mental representation. In this reflected form, the object acts as an ideal, internally motivating motive. Thus, the psychological analysis of needs is inevitably transformed into an analysis of motives.
The genetic source for human activity is the discrepancy between motives and goals. Their coincidence is secondary: the result of the acquisition by the goal of an independent motivating force or the result of the awareness of motives, which turns them into motives-goals. Unlike goals, motives are not actually recognized by the subject: at the moment of performing certain actions, we usually do not realize the motives that prompt them. Despite the fact that it is not difficult for us to give their motivation, this motivation does not always contain an indication of the real motive. When the motives are not realized, i.e. when a person is not aware of what prompts him to perform certain actions, they find their mental reflection in a special form - in the form emotional coloring actions.
A.N.Leontiev singled out two main functions of motives: motivation and meaning formation. Some motives, inducing activity, give it a personal meaning. Others, playing the role of motivating factors - sometimes acutely emotional, affective - are deprived of a sense-forming function; A.N.Leontiev called such motives motives-stimuli. The distribution of the functions of meaning formation and motivation between the motives of one and the same activity makes it possible to understand the main relationships that characterize the motivational sphere of a personality, the hierarchy of motives.
For many years, scientists have not given up hope to explain human behavior. The result of this interest are numerous theories of motivation, the number of which is more than a dozen. Currently this problem has not lost its relevance, rather the opposite. This is due to the growing demands of practice: in the field of production, the issues of activating and managing human behavior, the problems of optimizing the use of human resources are becoming more important and urgent. Nevertheless, research on motivation is far from definitively resolving all issues.
The most popular and widely used is the theory American psychologist, one of the founders humanistic psychology A. Maslow. He distinguished not individual motives, but entire groups. These groups are ordered in a value hierarchy according to their role in personality development. At the same time, the needs of high and higher levels are interpreted as no less instinct-like (innate) than the lower needs. Until the need is satisfied, it activates the activity and influences it. Activity is not so much "pushed from within" as attracted from outside by the possibility of satisfaction. The main idea of A. Maslow's classification is the principle of relative priority of actualization of motives, which states that before the needs of higher levels are activated and begin to determine the behavior, the needs of the lower level must be satisfied.
A. Maslow's hierarchical model of motivation consists of five levels:
physiological needs - hunger, thirst, sexuality, etc.;
security needs;
needs for social connections;
self-esteem needs;
self-actualization needs.
Of all the motives, the main interest of A. Maslow is directed to the needs of self-actualization. The researcher writes: “Even when all these needs are satisfied, we can still often expect that if an individual does not do what he is intended to, then new dissatisfaction and anxiety will soon arise. To be in harmony with himself, a musician must create music, an artist must paint, a poet must write poetry. Man must be what he can be. This need can be called self-actualization. It means the desire of a person to fulfill himself, namely his desire to become what he can be.
G. Murray, the creator of the well-known thematic apperceptive test (TAT), tried to systematize various theoretical approaches and concepts in the study of motivation. From his point of view, the central, correlated concepts should be considered the need on the part of the individual and the pressure on the part of the situation. Murray identified various bases for classifying needs.
First, they distinguish primary needs - for water, food, sexual relaxation, avoidance of cold, etc. - and secondary (psychogenic) needs: humiliation, achievements, affiliations. aggression, independence, opposition, respect, protection, dominance, drawing attention to oneself, avoiding harm, avoiding failure, patronage, order, play, rejection, reflection, sexual relations, seeking help (dependence), understanding. G. Murray also added to them the need for acquisition, avoidance of accusation, knowledge, creation, learning, recognition, preservation. Primary needs, unlike secondary needs, are based on organic processes and arise either cyclically (eating) or in connection with the need for regulation (avoidance of cold).
Secondly, needs are divided into positive (search) and negative (avoidance), explicit and latent. Explicit needs are freely and objectively expressed in external behavior, latent ones are manifested either in play actions (semi-objective) or in fantasy (subjective). In certain situations, individual needs can be combined to motivate behavior: conflict with each other, obey one another, etc.
Pressure is defined by the scientist as follows: “... some effect exerted on the subject by an object or situation and usually perceived by him as a transient set of incentives that take the form of a threat or benefit to the organism. When determining pressure, it makes sense to distinguish between:
alpha pressure - something relevant existing pressure, which can be established by scientific methods;
beta pressure, which is the subject's interpretation of the phenomena he perceives. Need and pressure correspond meaningfully to each other, their interaction is called a theme, which is presented by Murray as a genuine unit of analysis of human activity.
D. McClelland's concept of motivation considers three main groups of needs: in power, in success, in involvement. For the first time, the need for power as such is introduced into the system of stimuli for human activity. It is seen as synthetic and derived from the needs for respect and self-expression. The need for success (or achievement motivation) is the second basic need personality. The author was one of the first to show that it is natural for a person not only to “want something”, but also to determine for himself the level of mastering the object of his desire - to develop his own “bar” of achievements; thus, in itself the need for success (and through it - for recognition from others) is common to all, but the measure of its development is different. McClelland believed that human achievement and, ultimately, the prosperity and power of a country depend on the degree of development of this need.
In the "expectation theory" of V. Vroom important place in the organization of human behavior, it is given to the assessment of the probability by the personality specific event. When revealing the structure of motivation and the very process of behavior in this theory, special attention is paid to three main relationships.
First, these are expectations regarding the relationship between labor costs and results. If a person feels that there is a direct connection between them, then motivation increases, and vice versa.
Secondly, these are expectations regarding the relationship of results and rewards, i.e. expectation of a certain reward or reward in response to achieved level results. If there is a direct connection between them and a person clearly sees this, then his motivation increases.
Thirdly, it is the subjective valency of the expected reward or reward. Valence refers to the perceived value of satisfaction or dissatisfaction arising from a particular reward.
11.4.Motivational sphere of personality.
Any human activity is motivated not by one motive, but by several, i.e. activity is usually polymotivated. The totality of all motives for a given activity is called the motivation for the activity of a given individual. Motivation is defined as a process that links together personal and situational parameters on the way of regulating activities aimed at transforming the objective situation in order to implement the corresponding motive, to implement a certain objective relationship of the individual to the environment. One can speak not only about the motivation of any activity, but also about the general motivation characteristic of a given person, meaning the totality of persistent motives.
The totality of stable motives that determine the selectivity of a person's relationships and activity and are relatively independent of current situations is called the orientation of the personality. Orientation as a substructure of the personality includes various motives: its motives, needs, dispositions, interests, aspirations, intentions, ideals, norms, self-esteem, assessments of other people, the level of claims, attitudes, etc. Some of its components are dominant, others play a secondary role.
As motivators human behavior, representing the motivational sphere of the personality, are drives, attitudes, desires, interests, inclinations, ideals and worldview.
Attraction is the primary emotional manifestation of a person's need for something, an impulse that has not yet been mediated by conscious goal setting. IN domestic psychology attraction is considered as a stage in the formation of the motive of behavior, i.e. acts as a transient phenomenon: the need presented in it either fades away or is realized as a concrete desire. Thus, attraction is determined not only by biological, but also social factors. Besides, in domestic science the prevailing opinion is that in a person with a developed consciousness, drives as motives of behavior do not play a leading role, but act as “building material” for conscious motives. On the other hand, attraction is one of the central concepts of psychoanalysis, where it is given a leading role in the activity and regulation of human behavior.
Installation is an unconscious state of readiness for certain behavior or activity. The installation most often develops as a result of repeated repetition of situations in which a person reacted in a certain way. D.N. Uznadze developed a theory according to which the needs and attitudes that arise during the meeting determine the direction of the subject's behavior until the behavior encounters certain obstacles. In these cases, unconscious behavior is interrupted, and conscious mechanisms of objectification begin to operate. Difficulties that have arisen attract attention and are recognized. After consciously finding a new mode of regulation, behavior is again controlled by subconscious attitudes. This continuous transfer of control ensures a harmonious and more economical interaction between consciousness and the unconscious.
Desire is one of the forms of a motivational state based on a need conscious in content, which does not yet act as a strong incentive to action. Having a motivating force, desire sharpens the awareness of the goal of future action and the construction of its plan. If it is impossible to satisfy the desire, a state of frustration arises, which is accompanied by disappointment, anxiety, irritation, despair, etc.
Interest is a form of manifestation of a cognitive need, expressed by the selective attitude of a person to an object due to its vital significance and emotional attractiveness. Facilitating orientation, familiarization with something new, a more complete and deeper reflection of reality, interests ensure that the personality is directed towards understanding the goals of activity. In terms of content, interests can be material (housing amenities, beautiful clothes etc.) and spiritual (professional, cognitive, aesthetic, etc.). By volume, they can be divided into wide and narrow. They can also be deep and superficial, stable and unstable. Evaluation of interests, ultimately, is determined by their content and significance for the individual.
Propensity - selective orientation of the subject to certain activity. It is based on a deep and stable need for this activity, the desire to improve in it. Inclinations are usually a prerequisite for the development of the corresponding abilities, although there may be cases where inclinations and abilities do not coincide.
An ideal is an important goal of a person's personal aspirations, a kind of example, an emotionally colored standard of action.
Worldview is a system of human views on the world and its patterns. Worldview serves as the highest regulator of individual behavior, determining not only general orientation personality, but also her purposefulness. Ideals and worldview are formed in a person on the basis of his interests and inclinations.
Questions for self-examination.
- What are the main characteristics of activity as a psychological category?
- What are the main types and structure of activities?
- What theories of motivation do you know?
- What are the functions of motives?
- What is motivational sphere personality?
Literature.
- Gippenreiter Yu.B. Introduction to General Psychology: A Course of Lectures. M., 1988. Ch. 7 and 8.
- Leontiev A.N. Activity. Consciousness. Personality. M., 1975.
- Nurkova V.V., Berezanskaya N.B. Psychology: Textbook. M., 2004. Ch. 4.
- Abulkhanova-Slavskaya K.A. Activity and personality psychology. M., 1980.
- Rubinshtein S.L. Fundamentals of General Psychology. SPb., 1998.
- Hekhauzen X. Motivation and activity: Per. with him. / Ed. B.M. Velichkovsky. M., 1986.
- Shadrikov V.D. Psychology of activity and human abilities: Proc. allowance. M., 1996.
Unlike other representatives of wildlife, a person is prone to conscious actions, abstract thinking understanding of their place in the world around them. Moreover, the society, to one degree or another, controls the activity of each person, enclosing individuals in the established framework. No one will argue with the judgment that the activity of people differs from such a category as behavior. What is the difference between these concepts and why is it so important to separate them from each other?
Definition
Activity- conscious human activity aimed at changing the original matter, satisfying one's needs and desires. Its main property is consciousness, that is, the understanding by the subject of the goals and objectives set. Activities can be practical, aesthetic and cognitive and always have a certain meaning.
Behavior- the ability of living beings to act under the influence of various factors. main reason such activity - the need to adapt to changing conditions, survival, development. Behavior manifests itself in multicellular organisms, where it is controlled by the central nervous system. It is necessary to delimit this concept from the action that is inherent in single-celled beings, as well as in plants.
Comparison
The main difference between activity and behavior is the presence of a specific goal that the subject faces. It is the presence of a motive that distinguishes such activity and makes it unique. Activity is a system of purposeful actions that are subordinate to each other, have a motive, subject and means. It is the mental awareness of the act being performed that is necessary in some industries. For example, in criminal law, only the person who is aware of actual character the deeds they perform.
In addition, the behavior of a being can only be external, while activity can also be internal (thinking, scientific work). Manifestations of types of activity also differ from each other. Behavior is always aimed at satisfying biological needs, and activity is also aimed at the implementation of socio-cultural needs. In science, there is an opinion that it was they who predetermined the development of man and had significant influence on him.
Activity is the dominant type of activity in humans, while behavior is more characteristic of other living beings that are not endowed with consciousness. There are some similarities between these categories. So, both behavior and activity are aimed at changing the original matter, the implementation of certain tasks, the solution of which is very important for the subject of activity. Both forms of interaction with the outside world may be prohibited if they pose a danger to society.
Findings site
- Awareness. Human activity is always conscious, while behavior is spontaneous and acts as a reaction to stimuli.
- Levels. Human activity is internal and external, behavior - only external.
- Motivation. Activity is purposeful, while behavior may be devoid of any purpose.
- Manifestation. The behavior of a living being is expressed in a single act, a response to a stimulus. An activity is an organized system headed by a specific goal.
- Stimulus. The main need for behavior is the presence of internal needs, that is, instincts. Activities can also be determined by cultural and social needs.
Working with text (topics - knowledge, activity, spiritual life of society).
Tasks С.1.-С.4
Text 1
Soviet philosopher A. L. Nikiforov on the relationship between activity and behavior.
Human activity performs two important functions: firstly, influencing the world and transforming it, it serves as a means of satisfying the material and spiritual needs of the individual; secondly, it is a means of expressing and developing knowledge, skills, abilities of the individual. Both of these functions are merged into one in every act of human activity. We build houses, grow bread, make clothes, and launch rockets into space. By changing and adapting the outside world to meet our needs, in the process of changing the world around us, we simultaneously express our tastes, inclinations, our perception of the world and our attitude towards it. Therefore, on all products of our activity lies the imprint of the personality of a person of a certain historical era, a representative of a certain culture. The first of these functions of activity is performed by activity, the second - by behavior. Activity and behavior are not separate acts, but two sides of a single human activity.
Good example illustrating the unity of behavior and activity in the activity of the individual, gives the use of language. Linguists, as you know, distinguish between language, which is a system of interrelated concepts (symbols) that functions and develops according to certain laws, and speech - the use of language by individuals in specific situations. In order to be understandable, speech must be built according to the generally valid laws of the language, but along with this, it always has an individual character and expresses the characteristics of the speaking subject. Therefore, although we all speak the same language, we speak differently. The use of language and its rules is an activity on which the behavior of the speaker is superimposed, so speech arises.
Questions and tasks: 1) What, according to the scientist, is the difference between activity and behavior? Why should they be considered as two sides of a single human activity? 2) Illustrate the relationship between activity and behavior using the example of three food vendors (or another example of your own).
Text 2
“There are four kinds of idols that besiege the minds of people. In order to study them, let's give them names. Let us call the first type the idols of the clan, the second - the idols of the cave, the third - the idols of the square and the fourth - the idols of the theater ...
The idols of the race find their foundation in the very nature of man... for it is false to assert that the feelings of man are the measure of things... The human mind is likened to an uneven mirror, which, mixing its nature with the nature of things, reflects things in a distorted and disfigured form.
The idols of the cave are the delusions of the individual. After all, in addition to the mistakes inherent in the human race, everyone has their own special cave, which weakens and distorts the light of nature. This happens either from the special innate properties of each, or from education and conversations with others, or from reading books and from authorities before whom one bows ... "
The idols of the square are rooted in the imperfection and inaccuracy of the language. “People are united by speech. Words are established in a peculiar way to the understanding of the crowd. Therefore, a bad and absurd establishment of words besieges the mind in a wonderful way. Words directly rape the mind, confuse everything and lead people to empty and countless disputes and interpretations...
The idols that are imposed on the mind by words are of two kinds. Some are names of non-existent things... others are names of existing things, but vague, ill-defined, and thoughtlessly and biasedly abstracted from things. Names of the first kind: "fate", "prime mover", "circles of the planets", "elements of fire" and other inventions of the same kind, which flow from empty and false theories... For example (words of the second kind . ) let's take any word - at least " humidity"- and see if they agree with each other various occasions denoted by this word. It will turn out that the word "humidity" is nothing but a vague designation of various actions that do not allow any combination ... "
The idols of the theater come from the assimilation of erroneous theories. “There is ... a kind of philosophers who, under the influence of faith and reverence, mix theology and traditions with philosophy. The vanity of some of them has reached the point where they deduce the sciences from spirits and geniuses. F. Bacon).
1. Is it possible to agree with F. Bacon that our feelings and reason often lead to distortions of ideas about the world and this is inherent in the very nature of man? Explain your answer.
2. Give examples that specify the philosopher's thought about individual differences in cognitive activity. Try to complete the list of reasons for these differences indicated by F. Bacon.
3. Expanding the concept of "idols of the square", F. Bacon gives examples of incorrect or false use of words. How convincing do you think these examples are? Bring yours.
4. What, in your opinion, is the harm that is caused from time to time by false or untenable philosophical and scientific teachings("idols of the theater")?
Text 3
Try to conduct a little sociological research on your own. Ask people about the meaning of the words "spirit", "spiritual". You will be surprised at what different meanings your interlocutors will put into these words. For some, they will be associated with religion, the church (for example, "spiritual music"). Professional cultural figures are likely to note that spirituality is synonymous with creativity for them. Most people associate with the concepts of "spirit", "spiritual" ideas about the higher goals and meaning of human life, about the moral character of a person ...
We will proceed from the generally accepted definition of social activity as a conscious, expedient activity of people aimed at changing nature and society. As a result of social activity, objects are created that satisfy a variety of needs: tools, food and clothing, government and cultural institutions, works of art, architectural ensembles, scientific works. That side of human activity, which is aimed not at the processing of the “substance of nature”, but at the processing of “people by people”, that is, ultimately, at changing the qualities of the social subjects, we will call spiritual activity, and its products - spiritual values. A striking example of spiritual activity is the work of a teacher, as well as an artist, priest, and journalist.
To be precise, in philosophy it is customary to distinguish three types of social activity: practical, spiritual, and spiritual-practical. However, here I deliberately go for some simplification in order to make my idea more understandable.
How are spiritual values different from all others? Let's take a book as an example. It has all the attributes of a material, sensible thing: it can be seen and touched, moved from place to place, even destroyed (which, however, should not be done). Valuable natural materials and a lot of living, animated labor have been invested in the creation of the book. Finally, a book, like many other goods, has a market value. What specific properties give us the right to single out a book among other objects of the external world, referring it primarily and mainly to spiritual values?
C.2. The text gives a number of meanings of the words "spirit", "spiritual". List three of them.
C.3. Based on the text personal experience and the facts of public life, confirm with three examples the validity of the author's statement that the work of a teacher, as well as an artist, priest, journalist personifies spiritual activity.
C.4. The author considers the book as an example of a subject in which the material and spiritual sides are inextricably linked. What properties make it possible to attribute the book, first of all, to the products of spiritual culture? Name three of these properties.
Text 4
Values in human life and development of society
Values are one of the components of socio-cultural forms. In the course of the development of society, ideas are formed that are distinguished and to which special value is attributed. They are assimilated by the subject in the experience and experiences of pleasure and displeasure, joy and indignation, that is, through emotions. On the basis of values, evaluation criteria are formed that regulate people's attitudes towards objects of satisfaction of human needs. In the process of life, a person develops the perception of some objects as valuable, while others are not valuable and even "anti-value" ...
Values can be individual, group, universal. Individual values determine the activities of a particular person and may have a transient character, vary depending on the age of the individual. Group values (meaning a group in a broad sense - as a social community, a type of society) are more general in nature: they are defined as ideas accepted in a given community about the desired type of socio-cultural form. Human values are characterized by the fact that they have an enduring character, they are guidelines for most people, regardless of their gender, age, historical era in which they live. The number of such values is limited. For example, they include truth, beauty, goodness.
Perceived and entrenched values are transformed into social norms, with the help of which the forms of human activity are supported, reproduced, and regulated.
2 Name two factors that, in the author's opinion, contribute to the formation of values.
To answer a question in social science, what, according to the scientist, is the difference between activity and behavior? Why they should be considered as two sides of a single human activity
Human activity is the totality of all actions (as well as inactions) of an individual.
Activity is a conscious action aimed at achieving some result.
Behavior is a set of actions associated with moral and psychological attitudes and factors that manifest themselves in human life, regardless of the purpose of its actions.
In simple terms, a person's activity is his work, which he performs to obtain a certain benefit (or under duress). Take for example the execution homework. The performance itself is an activity aimed at getting good grades. But how you perform it, in what position, with or without music, with coffee or tea - this is your behavior. And it is not aimed at achieving a result as such, although it may accompany or interfere with it.
SOCIAL CHANGES."IN social system continuously occur
processes that can lead both to the emergence of new elements and to
the disappearance of pre-existing elements and relationships. It's about the problem
social change. There are two main forms of social change:
evolution and revolution. The equilibrium model of social change is
evolution. Even the sociologist G. Spencer defined evolution as a gradual process
the emergence of increasingly complex social forms.Disequilibrium model of social change
revolution emerges. Social revolution is such a way of transition to a new
quality in which the social system is in an unstable state:
its destabilization takes place, the balance of social forces is disturbed...Social progress should be understood as one of the
forms of development of society, based on such irreversible changes in it, in
resulting in a transition to more high level material
welfare and spiritual development personality.Progress as a concept can be applied to both
system as a whole, as well as to its individual elements. Attitude towards results
social progress in science is far from unambiguous. Some scientists believe that
hopes for limitless progress did not come true, that social change is more
complex and contradictory, their types and rates are different. Possibly stagnant, retrograde
development of society, movement in a circle. However, the concept of "progress" is still
used to describe social change.To determine the level of progressiveness of a particular
other society, two criteria have traditionally been used: the level
labor productivity and the degree of freedom of the individual in society. The more
progressive society, the higher these criteria. In modern social
science, both of these criteria are questioned due to a change in the nature
labor (labor is becoming more and more intellectual, which means that it is more difficult to
quantitative accounting) and the complication social behavior human (phenomenon)
"escape from freedom", discovered by E. Fromm). In scientific discussions about the "price
progress” gradually begins to stand out and assert the third criterion -
level of morality in society. Apparently, this criterion is to be,
having developed and taken shape, become an integral criterion reflecting the most important
tendencies of change in social relations”.(A. B. Bezborodov, V. P. Filatov).
TEXT QUESTIONS.
2. Explain why the attitude of scientists to the concept
"progress" is ambiguous. Give any two explanations based on the text.3. Illustrate any three
properties of social progress mentioned in the text. For each property
give one example.4. Based on the content of the text and course knowledge,
give three proofs that the level of morality is
integral criterion of progress.
As required by the assignment, there are "excerpts" and quotes from the text!
There are two main forms of social change:
evolution and revolution.Revolution is a non-equilibrium model of social change
Represents fundamental, qualitative and more significant transformations
Evolution refers to more or less slow, gradual, but quantitative changes, while the social system is in a more stable state.2 Explain why the attitude of scientists to the concept
"progress" is ambiguous. Give any two explanations based on text.The attitude of scientists to scientists to the concept
"progress" is ambiguous. clearly. Some believe that this is one of the main forms of development of society, as a result of which a transition to a higher level of material well-being and spiritual development of the individual is carried out.
The opinion of others is the opposite, they believe that the hopes for limitless progress have not materialized, that social change more complex and contradictory, their types and rates are different. Therefore, stagnant and slow development of society is possible.3) Illustrate any three
properties of social progress mentioned in the text.1. Transition to more complex and higher forms of social life. 2 transition to a higher level of material well-being and spiritual development of the individual, social growth. freedom and justice 3. Transition to a higher stage of maturity, for example, to the strengthening social connections, mitigation social contradictions improving the living conditions of people.
4. Based on the content of the text and knowledge of the course,
give three proofs that the level of morality is an integral criterion of progress.In scientific discussions, one more criterion is gradually beginning to stand out and be asserted -
the level of morality in society 1) reflects the most important trends in changing social relations 2) depends on education and upbringing, position in society 3) depends on the development of the progress of morality and the assimilation of moral norms of behavior in society
Man belongs to the animal kingdom and is subject to biological laws; moreover, as a bodily-material formation, like any kind of matter, it is subject to material and energy influences. But a person has thinking, speech and a complex structure of mental and emotional activity, which we call consciousness. People are able to realize the fact of their existence, put forward and realize life goals that correspond to the system of their value systems. There are biological instincts in human behavior, but they are controlled by the laws of the human community. The behavior of animals is rigidly programmed by a system of conditional and unconditioned reflexes that does not give them the opportunity to go beyond their biological nature. No matter how complex the behavior of an animal may seem to us, it remains an instinctive-biological behavior. Let us turn to confirm the example of the life of a man who has great authority in philosophical anthropology. We mean Immanuel Kant. From birth, he was so weak and sickly that his viability caused great doubt among those around him. Kant, on the other hand, was able to organize his life in such a way, so rigorously follow the principles he himself formulated, that he not only lived for eighty years, but also set an example of the most devoted service to science. On the other hand, natural inclinations contribute to the intellectual development of people, largely determine their propensity for creative forms of activity. Thus, in understanding man, it is important to avoid two extremes: "biologization" and "socialization" of human nature. And yet it cannot be argued that a person has two independent entities. The essence of man is one, and it is formed by a combination of supernatural properties, thanks to which we overcome our biological certainty. Free will, which manifests itself in the ability to choose one's destiny, the path of one's life, is the main and basic of these human properties. The meaning of a person's life is precisely to overcome or try to overcome all resistances and circumstances on his own, by the effort of his will, realizing his life program. In this case, a person becomes really free, because he is able to dominate external circumstances and conditions.
From the text "it is important to avoid two extremes: the 'biologization' and the 'socialization' of human nature." Biologization can lead to: 1 Loss of speech. 2 Inability to change the environment. 3 With biologization, a person can lose his social functions.Socialization can lead to: 1 Acceptance of nature not as something valuable, but as a storehouse of resources, which will lead to the destruction of nature. 2 can lead to underestimation or overestimation of one's health. 3 to careless attitude to the health of other people.
Need to answer a question
Suggest why, according to Freud, the value of culture as a source of happiness can be questioned.Urgently,
1) How do you understand the unique feature of a person noted by the philosopher to act as the subject and object of activity? Explain your idea with examples. 2) Do you share the philosopher's opinion about man as a "paradoxical" and "contradictory" being? Support your answer with arguments. 3) Comment on the idea of N. A. Berdyaev that "man is a fundamental novelty in nature."
Text: Philosophical anthropology is central part philosophy of the spirit. It is fundamentally different from the scientific - biological, sociological, psychological - study of man. And this difference lies in the fact that philosophy investigates man from within man, studies him as belonging to the realm of the spirit, while science investigates man as belonging to the realm of nature, that is, outside of man, as an object. .. As a creature that belongs to two worlds and is able to overcome itself, man is a contradictory and paradoxical being, combining polar opposites in himself. With the same right it can be said of man that he is a being high and low, weak and strong, free and slave.<...>Man is not only a product of the natural world and natural processes, but at the same time he lives in the natural world and participates in natural processes. It depends on the natural environment, and at the same time it humanizes this environment, introduces a fundamentally new beginning into it. creative act man in nature has a cosmogonic meaning and signifies a new stage of cosmic life. Man is a fundamental novelty in nature. The problem of man is completely insoluble if we consider him from nature and only in relation to nature. Man can only be understood in his relation to God. You cannot understand a person from what is below him, you can only understand him from what is above him.
If we consider the process scientific knowledge in general, then as its elements, first of all, the subject and object of cognition should be singled out.
The subject of cognition can be both a separate person (individual) and various social groups (society as a whole). In the case when the subject of cognition is an individual, then his self-consciousness (the experience of his own “I”) is determined by the whole world of culture created throughout human history. Successful cognitive activity can be carried out under the condition of the active role of the subject in cognitive process.
The object of knowledge can be material formations(chemical elements, physical bodies, living organisms), and social phenomena(society, the relationship of people, their behavior and activities).
The results of cognition (results of the experiment, scientific theories, science in general) can also become an object of knowledge. Thus, things, phenomena, processes that exist independently of a person, which are mastered either in the course of practical activities or in the course of learning.
In this regard, it is clear that the concepts of object and subject differ from each other. The object is only one side of the object to which attention is directed.
Since the emergence of philosophy, the problem of the relation of the subject to the object, as the relation of the knower to the known, has always been at the center of attention of philosophers. The explanation of the causes and nature of this relationship has undergone a complex evolution, going from extreme opposition of subjective reliability, self-consciousness of the subject and the world objective reality(Descartes), until the complex dialectical relationship of subject and object is revealed in the course of cognitive activity.
2. What are the two sides of economic choice noted by the authors? What is the economic choice problem? Give an example of an economic choice situation.
3. What fundamental law did the authors mention? How did they justify the operation of this law?
4. Why, according to the authors, free goods do not exist? What is the role of government in the production and distribution of "free" goods? Name any two social groups for which "free" benefits are vital.
5. Using the text and social science knowledge, formulate three tips for a budding entrepreneur who opens his own business.
6. There is an opinion that the production of "free" goods hinders the economic development of the country. Do you agree with this opinion? Using the content of the text and social science knowledge, give two arguments (explanations) to justify your position.
Over the past 250 years, mankind has managed to significantly increase production and improve the quality of life. And now the economic progress of society opens
more and more effective ways transforming the resources at its disposal into desired goods and services. But this does not negate the fundamental law - a person still experiences and will experience a deficit. Resources in the world are limited and human desires are endless. And, since it is impossible to have everything that you want, you have to choose.
If for the production of any one commodity we use labour, machines, Natural resources, - this forces the rejection of other goods that could be produced in a different situation. This choice in a market economy is made by consumer demand and production costs. Demand for a product is a consumer signal that tells the entrepreneur what to produce. However, in order to produce, the initial resources must be "bought" from other areas of their use. The cost of purchasing resources reminds the entrepreneur that there are other industries that require the same resources.
As a result, producers have a strong incentive to supply the market with only those goods that can be sold at a price at least equal to the cost of their production, and especially those goods whose value in the eyes of the consumer in the most more exceeds the cost of their production.
It is important to understand that a product can be provided to a person or group of people for free only if someone pays for it, and this will only redistribute the burden of costs without reducing it in any way. Politicians often talk about "free education", "free healthcare" or "free housing". These expressions can only mislead. None of the goods is provided free of charge - the production of each of them requires scarce resources. For example, buildings, labor and other resources involved in the learning process could be used to produce food, provide services in the field of recreation and entertainment, etc. The cost of "production of education" is the cost of those goods that had to be abandoned as a result of that the resources required to produce them were spent on education. The government can shift these costs from one shoulder to another, but it is impossible to get rid of them. The rule “you have to pay for everything” is true in all cases of life.
(R. Stroup, J. Gwartney)
Plan
1) The economic progress of society before and now.
2) "Resources in the world are limited, and human desires are endless"
3) Consumer demand and production costs
4) Each free product is paid for by someone
2.
Consumer demand and production costs. The problem with economic choice is that the world's resources are limited and human desires are endless.
3. "A person still experiences and will experience a deficit"
"If for the production of any one product we use labor, machine tools, natural resources, this forces us to abandon other goods that could be produced in a different situation"
4.
"It is important to understand that a good can only be given to a person or group of people for free if someone pays for it." The government pays for free goods by distributing them to people who need them.
Poor, minors.In this problem, I take the position of those who are actively fighting for an increase in scholarships! Since, the current scholarship is not enough even for elementary norms! And without a scholarship, it will be more difficult for students to live! Let's consider the situation, a student entered a university in another city, having left his own! He settled in a hostel, but they don’t send him money! And the scholarship will just make things easier for this student!
Text: Human activity performs two important functions: firstly, by influencing the surrounding world and transforming it, it serves as a means of satisfying the material and spiritual needs of the individual; secondly, it is a means of expressing and developing knowledge, skills, abilities of the individual. Both of these functions are merged into one in every act of human activity. We build houses, grow bread, make clothes, and launch rockets into space. By changing and adapting the outside world to meet our needs, in the process of changing the world around us, we simultaneously express our tastes, inclinations, our perception of the world and our attitude towards it. Therefore, on all products of our activity lies the imprint of the personality of a person of a certain historical era, a representative of a certain culture. The first of these functions of activity is performed by activity, the second - by behavior. Activity and behavior are not separate acts, but two sides of a single human activity. A good example of the unity of behavior and activity in the activity of an individual is provided by the use of language. Linguists, as you know, distinguish between language, which is a system of interrelated concepts (symbols), functioning and developing according to certain laws, and speech - the use of language by individuals in specific situations. In order to be understandable, speech must be built according to the generally valid laws of the language, but along with this, it always has an individual character and expresses the characteristics of the speaking subject. Therefore, although we all speak the same language, we speak differently. The use of language and its rules is an activity on which the behavior of the speaker is superimposed, so speech arises.
Human activity performs two important functions: firstly, by influencing the surrounding world and transforming it, it serves as a means of satisfying the material and spiritual needs of the individual; secondly, it is a means of expressing and developing knowledge, skills, abilities of the individual. Both of these functions are merged into one in every act of human activity. We build houses, grow bread, make clothes, and launch rockets into space. By changing and adapting the outside world to meet our needs, in the process of changing the world around us, we simultaneously express our tastes, inclinations, our perception of the world and our attitude towards it. Therefore, on all products of our activity lies the imprint of the personality of a person of a certain historical era, a representative of a certain culture. The first of these functions of activity is performed by activity, the second - by behavior. Activity and behavior are not separate acts, but two sides of a single human activity. A good example of the unity of behavior and activity in the activity of an individual is provided by the use of language. Linguists, as you know, distinguish between language, which is a system of interrelated concepts (symbols), functioning and developing according to certain laws, and speech - the use of language by individuals in specific situations. In order to be understandable, speech must be built according to the generally valid laws of the language, but along with this, it always has an individual character and expresses the characteristics of the speaking subject. Therefore, although we all speak the same language, we speak differently. Use of the language and its rules -
Answer
