Paronymy and synonymy. Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary

You fed the white swans...

... I swam nearby - the helms came together.

In both cases, the rhyme is phonetically and rhythmically identical, but it sounds differently. A tautological rhyme that repeats both the sound and the meaning of the rhyming word sounds poor. A sound match with a semantic difference determines a rich sound. Let's do a few more experiments, transferring the rhyme from homonymous to tautological, and make sure that during this operation, which does not touch either the phonetic or rhythmic facet of the verse, the sound of the rhyme is constantly "quenched":

The sea is waiting to attack -

Tit threatens to burn

And attack Russia

London bird.

(P. A. Vyazemsky)

All looking left, right,

A coward stands on tiptoe

Like lava underfoot

Or the earth was disturbed by a coward.

(P. A. Vyazemsky)

Balding chemist Heels -

Passes into the clatter of heels.

(A. Bely)

It is enough in any of the above examples (attack - attack, coward - coward. Heels - heels) to replace the homonym with a tautological repetition, as the sonority of the rhyme will disappear. The sonority of words in rhyme and the physical (126) nature of the sound of words in a language are not at all the same thing. One and the same complex of physical speech sounds, realizing the same phonemes of a language, can produce in rhyme the impression of both very rich and extremely poor sounding.

In this sense, the following example is very indicative:

God help you, Count von Buhl!

The prince sowed: you had to reap!

Perhaps a friend John Bull

Have to shrug

(P. A. Vyazemsky)

Let's do two experiments. First, let's change "background" to "John" in the first verse. Neither the phonetic nor the rhythmic nature of the Bulu-Bulu rhyme will change. Meanwhile, the degree of sonority will change decisively. The second experiment is even more curious. We will not change anything in the text under consideration. Let us only imagine that it is read in the presence of two listeners, one of whom knows that von Buhl in the first verse is Austrian. diplomat XIX c., under the prince is meant Bismarck, and John Bull is a common noun of the English. The other does not know this and imagines that in the first and third verses we are talking about the same person unknown to him, say, a certain Count John von Buhl. The degree of sonority of the poetic text for these listeners will be different. All of the above indicates that the very concept of sonority is not absolute and has not only a physical (or physico-rhythmic) nature, but also a relative, functional one. It is connected with the nature of the information contained in the rhyme, with the meaning of the rhyme. The first listener perceives the rhyme "Bulya - Bulya" as homonymous, the second - as tautological. For the first it sounds rich, for the second it sounds poor.

In all the examples given, the rhymes are phonetically identical, and rhythmically they are in the same position. Meanwhile, some of them seem sonorous, ringing, musical, while others do not make such an impression. What is different in these seemingly coinciding rhymes? Semantics. In such cases, when the rhyme sounds rich, we are dealing with homonyms: words that coincide in sound composition have different meaning. In poor-sounding rhymes - tautological ones - the whole word is repeated in full: not only its sound form, but also its semantic content.

Two important conclusions can be drawn from the foregoing.

First: the musical sound of rhyme is derived not only from phonetics, but also from the semantics of the word.

Second: the definition of rhyme in the first degree of approximation could be formulated as follows: rhyme is the sound coincidence of words or their parts in a position marked relative to the rhythmic unit with a semantic mismatch. This definition will also cover tautological rhyme, since, unlike colloquial speech, poetic speech does not know absolute semantic repetition, since the same lexical or the same semantic unit, when repeated, is already in a different structural position and, (127), therefore, acquires a new meaning. As we shall see later, in order to demonstrate a complete semantic repetition, it was by no means accidental that we had to use artificial examples: a complete semantic repetition in a literary text is impossible.

We have seen that the sound coincidence only emphasizes the semantic difference. Coinciding part of similar but different semantic units in this case, it becomes a “sufficient reason” for comparison: it is taken out of brackets, emphasizing the difference in the nature of the phenomena denoted by rhyming words.

The mechanism of influence of rhyme can be decomposed into the following processes. First, rhyme is repetition. As has been repeatedly noted in science, rhyme returns the reader to the previous text. Moreover, it must be emphasized that such a “return” revives in the mind not only consonance, but also the meaning of the first of the rhyming words. There is something profoundly different from the usual linguistic process of transferring meanings: instead of a chain of signals sequential in time that serve the purpose of certain information, there is a complexly constructed signal that has a spatial nature - a return to what has already been perceived. At the same time, it turns out that the series of verbal signals and individual words(in this case - rhymes) at the second (not linear-speech, but structural-artistic) perception, they acquire a new meaning.

The second element of the semantic perception of rhyme is the juxtaposition of the word and the one that rhymes with it, the emergence of a correlating pair. Two words, which, as phenomena of language, are outside all types of connections - grammatical and semantic, in poetry turn out to be connected by rhyme into a single constructive pair.

Your essay is passionate, essay is smoky

Through the twilight of the lodge floated to me,

And the tenor sang hymns on the stage

Crazy violins and spring...

(A. Blok)

"smoky" and "hymns" if we read the proposed text as ordinary information, ignoring the poetic structure - the concepts are so different that their correlation is excluded. The grammatical and syntactic structures of the text also do not give grounds for their comparison. But let's look at the text as a poem. We will see that "smoky - hymns" turns out to be connected by the dual concept of "rhyme". The nature of this dual unity is such that it includes both identification and opposition of its constituent concepts. Moreover, identification becomes a condition of opposition. The rhyme fits into the formula, extremely essential for art in general, "this and not that at the same time."

The comparison in this case is primarily formal, and the opposition is semantic. Identification belongs to the plane of expression (at the phonetic level), opposition - to the plane of content. "Smoky" in the position of a rhyme requires consonance in the same way (128) as a certain syntactic connection (for example, agreement) requires certain endings. Sound coincidence here becomes the starting point for semantic opposition.

However, to say that rhyme is only a sound coincidence with a semantic non-coincidence would be a simplification of the issue. After all, in terms of sound, rhyme, as a rule, is not a complete, but a partial coincidence. We identify words that sound different but have common phonological elements and neglect the difference in order to establish similarity. And then we use the established similarity as a basis for opposition.

But the situation is more complicated with the semantic side of rhyming words, since the entire experience of aesthetic communication teaches us that certain forms of expression reveal certain elements of content. The presence of a connection between rhyming words in terms of expression makes one imply the presence of certain content connections, brings the semantics closer. In addition, as we will try to show later, if in language the indivisible unit of lexical content is the word, then in poetry the phoneme becomes not only a semantic element, but also a carrier of lexical meaning. Sounds matter. For this reason, sound (phonological) rapprochement becomes a rapprochement of concepts.

Thus, we can say that the process of juxtaposition and opposition, the different sides of which are manifested with different clarity in the sound and semantic facets of rhyme, constitutes the essence of rhyme as such. The nature of rhyme is in bringing together what is different and revealing the difference in what is similar. Rhyme is dialectical in nature.

In this sense, the emergence of a culture of rhyme is far from accidental precisely at the moment of maturation within the framework of the medieval consciousness of scholastic dialectics - the feeling of a complex interweaving of concepts as an expression of the complexity of people's life and consciousness. It is curious that, as V. M. Zhirmunsky noted, early Anglo-Saxon rhyme is associated with the desire to compare and contrast those concepts that were previously perceived simply as different: “First of all, rhyme appears in some constant stylistic formulas of the alliterative epic. This includes, for example, the so-called “paired formulas”, which combine the union “and” (“ond”) with two related concepts (synonymous or contrasting), in a parallel grammatical form.

It is no coincidence that in Russia rhyme, as an element of artistic structure, entered literature in the era of "whirling words" - the tense style of Moscow literature of the 15th century, bearing the imprint of medieval scholastic dialectics.

At the same time, it should be noted that the principle of constructing rhyme in medieval art differs from modern. This is due to the specificity of the forms of medieval and contemporary artistic consciousness. If modern art proceeds from the idea that originality, (129) uniqueness, individual originality belong to the virtues of a work of art, then medieval aesthetics considered everything individual to be sinful, a manifestation of pride and demanded fidelity to the original "God-inspired" models. Skillful repetition of the complex conditions of an artistic ritual, and not his own invention - that's what was required of the artist. This aesthetic had its own social and ideological basis, but in this case we are only interested in one of the sides of the question.

The aesthetic thinking of certain eras (in each era, in each ideological and artistic system, this had a special meaning) allowed the aesthetics of identity - it was not the creation of a new one that was considered beautiful, but the exact reproduction of a previously created one. Behind such aesthetic thinking stood (in relation to the art of the Middle Ages) the following epistemological idea: the truth is not known from the analysis of individual private phenomena - private phenomena are elevated to some true and pre-given general categories. Cognition is carried out by equating particular phenomena to general categories, which are thought of as primary. The act of cognition does not consist in revealing the particular, the specific, but in the process of abstracting from the particular, raising it to the general and, as a result, to the universal.

This consciousness also determined the specificity of rhyme. The abundance of inflectional "grammatical" rhymes is striking. From the point of view of the poetic ideas common in the art of modern times, this is a bad rhyme. An inattentive reader will explain the abundance of such rhymes in the Middle Ages by weak poetic technique. This, however, must apparently be about something else. The selection of a number of words with the same inflections was perceived as the inclusion of this word in a general category (participle of a certain class, a noun with the meaning "doer", etc.), that is, it activated next to the lexical grammatical meaning. At the same time, the lexical meaning was the carrier of semantic diversity, while suffixes included rhyming words in a single semantic series. There was a generalization of meaning. The word was saturated with additional meanings, and the rhyme was perceived as rich.

The modern perception of rhyme is built differently. After establishing the commonality of the elements included in the class "rhyming words", differentiation of meanings occurs. The common becomes the basis for comparison, the differences - a semantic, differentiating feature. In cases where both the phonological and morphological sides are identical in the coinciding parts of rhyming words, the semantic load is transferred to the root part, and repetition is excluded from the process of meaning differentiation. The overall semantic load decreases, and as a result, the rhyme sounds impoverished (cf. “beauty - soul” in A.K. Tolstoy’s ballad “Vasily Shibanov”). At the same time, it is especially curious that the very structure that, against the background of some epistemological principles, one aesthetic model, provided the rhyme with fullness of sound, in another system of artistic knowledge turns out to be depleted. This once again confirms how erroneous is the idea of the history of rhyme as a long series (130) of technical improvement of some "artistic device" with the same poetic content given once and for all.

At the same time, it is not difficult to see the functional commonality of rhyme in the art of different eras: rhyme exposes many semantically neutral in the usual language usage facets of the word and makes them semantic features, loads them with information, meaning. This explains the great semantic concentration of rhyming words - a fact that has long been noted in the literature of poetry.

As can be seen from what has been said above, it is precisely on the material of repetitions that more general aesthetic regularity is revealed with the greatest clarity, that everything structurally significant in art is semantized. At the same time, we can distinguish two types of repetitions: repetitions of elements that are semantically heterogeneous at the level natural language(repeated elements that belong in the language to the plan of expression), and repetitions of semantically homogeneous elements (synonyms; the limiting case here is the repetition of the same word). We have already discussed the first case in sufficient detail. The second also deserves attention.

Strictly speaking, repetition, complete and unconditional, is generally impossible in verse. The repetition of a word in a text, as a rule, does not mean a mechanical repetition of a concept. More often it testifies to a more complex, albeit unified, semantic content.

The reader, accustomed to the graphical perception of the text, seeing the repeated outlines of words on paper, believes that before him is a simple doubling of the concept. Meanwhile, it is usually about something else, more complex concept associated with the given word, but not at all complicated quantitatively.

You hear: the drum is rumbling,

Soldier, say goodbye to her, say goodbye to her

The platoon goes into the fog, fog, fog,

And the past is clearer, clearer, clearer ...

(B. Sh. Okudzhava)

The second verse does not at all mean an invitation to say goodbye twice. Depending on the intonation of the reading, it can mean: "Soldier, hurry up to say goodbye, the platoon is already leaving." Or: “Soldier, say goodbye to her, say goodbye forever, you will never see her again.” Or: "Soldier, say goodbye to her, to your only one." But never: "Soldier, say goodbye to her, say goodbye to her again." Thus, the doubling of a word does not mean a mechanical doubling of the concept, but a different, new, more complicated content. “The platoon goes into the fog, fog, fog” - can be decoded: “The platoon goes into the fog, further and further, it is out of sight.” It can be deciphered in some other way, but never purely quantitatively: "The platoon goes into one fog, then into the second and into the third." In the same way, the last verse can be interpreted as: “And the past is becoming more and more clear”, “and (131) the past is more and more clear, and now it has reached dazzling clarity”, etc. But the poet did not choose any of our decipherings precisely because his mode of expression includes all these conceptual shades. This is achieved insofar as the textually more accurate the repetition, the more significant the semantic-distinctive function of intonation, which becomes the only differential feature in the chain of repeated words.

But the repetition of words has another structural function. Let us recall the verse from the poem by A. Blok we have already quoted:

Your essay is passionate, essay is smoky ...

"Passionate Essay" and "Smoky Essay" constitute two independent phraseological combinations, one of which is based on the direct line, and the other - on portable use. The combinations "passionate essay" and "smoky essay" create two semantic wholes, more complex than the mechanical sum of the concepts "essay + passionate" and "essay + smoky". However, the repetition of a word destroys the independence of these two combinations, linking them into a single, semantically even more complex whole. The word “essay” repeated twice becomes a common member of these two combinations, and such distant and incomparable concepts as “smoky” and “passionate” turn out to be a single contrasting pair, forming a higher semantic unity that is by no means decomposable into the semantic meanings of its constituent words. .

Consider from the point of view of the function of repetitions the poem by Leonid Martynov “Oh my land!”:

O my land!

One side

The fields of my native land are sleeping,

And look at the other side -

Only dozing, full of anxiety.

Anxiety is a property of spring.

We must always worry

For we are deprived of arrogance,

That tasks up to one are solved.

And solemn

One side,

The outlines of hoary antiquity,

And of course, on the other hand,

One should not be a servant of antiquity.

Only the timid

Minds are confused

The other side of silence

And the property of the moon is more pleasant to them -

Be accessible from one side only.

But soon

And the device of the moon

We will look at the other side as well. (132)

See life from any side

Not shameful in any way.

The whole system of rhyming in this poem is built on the repeated repetition of the same word "side". Moreover, we are talking here about a tautological repetition (although individual semantic "bundles" of meanings have already diverged so far here that the words expressing them are perceived as homonyms).

So, already in the first stanza, the word “side” occurs three times, and in the same case. However, in fact, all three times this word carries a different load, syntactic and semantic. This becomes especially clear when comparing the first and third cases (“on the one hand”, “on the other hand”) with the second, in which the “side” (with the epithet “native”) is synonymous with the concept of “homeland”. However, upon closer examination, it turns out that the semantics of the word in the first and third cases is also not identical: it is clear that the introductory phrase “on the one hand” is not equivalent to the circumstance of the place of action “look at it from the other side”. In the latter case, we are talking about the side as a real concept (the point from which one should take a closer look) - in the first case, we have only an official turn of the clerical style of speech, hinting that the imaginary dream of native fields only seems to an inattentive, bureaucratic look, and a person, able to observe reality, sees even in immobility the fullness of unmanifested forces.

The second stanza, revealing the theme of "anxiety" as the most important feature of a living, developing world and an adequate to it - a mobile, dialectical point of view, is built on other repetitions ("anxiety - worry"). It only hints at returning the reader to the semantic group “side” we are considering, singling out the word “one” from the already encountered and repeatedly repeated in the future combination “on the one hand” (“that the tasks up to one have been solved”). This technique has as its function the intuitive maintenance of the topic of interest to us in the reader's mind.

In the third stanza, "on the one hand" and "on the other hand" are syntactically unambiguous. However, they are expressively ambiguous: the second is painted in tones of irony and sounds like a parody, “paraphrasing” of the first. The contrast of this "on the one hand" and "on the other hand" is also determined by the fact that they are part of the antithesis: "... solemn, on the one hand" - "naturally, on the other hand." "Solemn" and "naturally" in their place in the general language structure are not antitheses, since they occupy syntactically incomparable positions. According to the contextual meaning, in the adverb “naturally” only semantics of the “of course” type are realized.

But the poetic opposition has a different logic: “on the one hand” - “on the other hand” is perceived as a neutralized archiseme, emphasizing (133) the contrasting differential semantic pair “solemn” - “naturally”. In this case, a new meaning is revealed in the adverb “naturally” - simplicity as the antithesis of solemnity, which, in turn, divides the entire stanza into two antithetical half-stanzas. And this, in the end, highlights the difference in the previously equated ("on the one hand" - "on the other hand"). In this case, we are talking about an intonational difference: it is easy to see that the passages will be read in a different declamatory key. One should carry information about bureaucratic, deathly pomposity, the other about natural life.

In the next, fourth stanza, the same phraseological phrase is introduced with a distinctly new meaning. Stationery "on the one hand", "on the other hand" is opposed to the "reverse side of silence" - still dormant, but already awakening forces of life that confuse "timid minds". To the affirmation of the revolutionary dynamics of life in the “fields of the native land”, “timid minds” counterpose the idea of one-sidedness and immobility as laws of nature:

More pleasant to them is the property of the moon -

Be accessible from one side only

At the same time, the intense development of the topic of interest to us naturally leads to the fact that in the fourth stanza "the reverse side" and "on the one hand" are not random, poor eigenvalue the words. They are the basis of the antithesis of the dynamics of society and the immobility of "eternal" nature, the versatility of life and the dogmatism of "timid minds".

But the next - final - structure removes this antithesis as well. The fifth stanza affirms the new thought. There is no immobility in nature either: and it is subject to the revolutionary dynamics of human life. Between the conviction that the moon will also be (then not yet!) considered "from the other side" and the call to "see life from any side of it" a relation of parallelism is established. As a result, the final clerical "from no side" sounds like a merciless mockery - the antithesis of the triumphant clerical "on the one hand" at the beginning of the poem. This is how the main artistic idea of the poem is revealed - the image of a multifaceted life that requires a multilateral approach from the artist.

The absence of complete, absolute semantic repetitions in art is especially clearly revealed when considering homonymous rhymes. Such a rhyme is well known to poetry, which seeks to reveal the inner diversity of outwardly uniform phenomena. A vivid example here is one of the forms of medieval poetry of the East, the ghazal, with its redif - a repeating word. Although in the poetry of Hafiz and the scholastic poets of the XV century. the role of redif is not the same, but it always performs a similar aesthetic function: it reveals the diversity of the content of the same concept. So, the Central Asian poet of the XV century. Katibi wrote a moralistic poem "Dah Bab", all the rhymes of which are "tejnis", that is, homonyms. About the homonymous rhymes of Mawlan Mohammed Akhli from Shiraz (XV century), E. E. Bertels writes: (evil-water)." According to the same author, another poet, Atai, "widely uses homonyms as a rhyme, which gives the verses a special poignancy."

It is easy to see that, in fact, the nature of the favorite repetition of a folk song - the refrain (refrain) - is the same. Following various couplets, that is, entering into different contexts, he acquires all the time a new semantic-emotional coloring. The repetition of words only contributes to its selection. True, such an attitude to the refrain is a relatively late phenomenon. An archaic song that does not know rhyme deals with the really unconditional repetition of a refrain, but this is the product of a specific aesthetic, an aesthetic of identity. Modern folk, classical and modern literary song invariably give the refrain an innumerable variety of shades. So, for example, in the well-known ballad "Findlay" by R. Burns, the repeatedly repeated "said Findlay" sounds different each time. Similarly, in the ballad "The Matchmaking of Duncan Gray" (translated by S. Ya. Marshak), the refrain "This is matchmaking!" invariably acquires a new semantic connotation.

The same could easily be shown by the example of anaphora (single words), as well as various forms of intonational unity inherent in poetic and rhetorical text. The intonational parallelism of verses and periods becomes here the “ground for comparison”, which exposes semantic opposite or semantic difference. Thus, we are convinced that a sufficiently general law of the structure of a poetic text will not be a mechanical repetition of parts, but their correlation, organic connection. Therefore, none of the parts of a poetic text can be understood outside the definition of its function. By itself, it simply does not exist: any part of the text receives all its qualities, all its certainty in correlation (comparison and opposition) with its other parts and with the text as a whole. The nature of this act of correlation is dialectically complex: the same process of juxtaposing parts of a literary text, as a rule, is both an approach - a comparison, and a repulsion - an opposition of meanings. Rapprochement of concepts highlights their difference, remoteness reveals similarities. Therefore, to choose certain repetitions in the text does not mean to say anything about it. Identical (that is, “repeating”) elements are functionally not the same if they occupy positions that are structurally different. Moreover, since exactly the same elements reveal the structural difference between the parts of the poetic text, make it more obvious, it is indisputable that an increase in repetitions leads to an increase in semantic diversity, and not the uniformity of the text. The greater the similarity, the greater the difference. The repetition of the same parts exposes the structure.

So, repetitions of different types are a semantic fabric of great complexity, which is superimposed on the general language fabric, creating a special concentration of thought inherent (135) only in poetry. Consequently, there is nothing more erroneous than the very common idea that although poetry has a special extra-sense musicality, but in terms of meaning they are much poorer than prose. We have already seen that the high structural organization of poetry, which creates a sense of musicality, is at the same time a high semantic complexity, completely inaccessible to an amorphous text.

Such is the aesthetic nature of repetitions of large units of text: verses, stanzas, elements of composition (“situations”, “motives”, etc.). And here we can distinguish two different, although similar in their fundamentals, cases. First: in repeating units, there is a partial match and, consequently, a partial mismatch of the text.

A gift in vain, a gift random ...

The above verse is clearly divided into two half-lines, in which the syntactic constructions and intonation structure are the same. The first member of parallel binomials (the word "gift") and the grammatical form of the second coincide completely. The lexico-semantic content and sound form (with the exception of the stressed vowel and the final - “ny”) of the second member differ. As we have repeatedly noted, the presence of coincidences leads to the allocation, structural activation of the non-coinciding part. The semantics of the words "vain" and "accidental" form a contrasting pair, and these words themselves become the semantic center of the poem. At the same time, the semantic load depends on the magnitude of the discrepancy, and this latter, in turn, is directly proportional to the significance of the coincidence in the rest of the verse. The more matching elements and aspects in incompletely repeated segments of the text, the higher the semantic activity of the differentiating element. Therefore, weaken the degree of coincidence of half-verses, for example, by composing a verse:

Gift in vain and random -

(where not only the repeated word “gift” disappears, but the syntagmo-intonational parallelism of the parts is also destroyed), means to weaken the degree of emphasis on the words “vain” and “random”. The same thing would happen if the parallelism of the grammatical form of the second term was destroyed, as well as in all individual cases of weakening repetition. At the same time, it should be borne in mind that the degree of dependence of the meaning of the text on its structure in the case under consideration is much higher than in those where semantically comparable segments are based on obviously contrasting, regardless of their position in the verse, lexical units - antonyms (“And we hate we, and we love by chance ... "). In the last example, the comparison "we hate" - "love" is also implied outside of any particular artistic construction. It is certainly included in the general language semantics of these words, which receive little from their one or another structural position. Matched pair "vain" - "accidental" - generation given designs. The semantics of the elements here is very individual and will completely disappear with the destruction of this structure. The semantics of the words in this example (136) is occasional and entirely generated not only by the meanings of the words in the context, but also by their relationship in a certain structural position.

The second possible type of textual parallelism is that in which repeated elements are textually the same. It may seem that here before us is a complete coincidence. However, it is not. Textual coincidence exposes positional difference. The different position of textually identical elements in the structure leads to different forms of their correlation with the whole. And this determines the inevitable difference in interpretation. And it is the coincidence of everything, except for the structural position, that activates positionality as a structural, semantic feature. Thus, the “full” repetition turns out to be incomplete both in terms of expression (difference in position), and, consequently, in terms of content (cf. what was said above about the chorus).

From the problem of repeatability of large compositional elements text, it is natural to move on to considering the question of the repetition of the entire text. It is quite obvious that the artistic structure is not designed for a single transmission of the information contained in it. Anyone who has read and understood an informative note in a newspaper will not re-read it a second time. Meanwhile, it is clear that repeated reading of works of fiction, listening to a musical play, watching a movie, if these works, from our point of view, have sufficient artistic perfection, is a completely natural phenomenon. How can the repeatability of the aesthetic effect be explained in this case? (137)

First, we should dwell on the moment of individual interpretation (which is always applicable to works in which the acts of creation and performance are separated). Repeated listening to a work that implies mastery of performance (the art of a reciter, musician, actor) gives us a curious picture of the correlation between repetition and non-repetition. It has long been noticed that the features of the individual interpretation of the performer are exposed especially sharply when comparing different performances of the same works, plays or roles. Increasing the element of similarity to a complete match of the textual part also increases the difference of non-coincidence - in this case, an individual interpretation.

Secondly, there is another case to be considered - the case of a seemingly complete repetition. We repeatedly encounter it in the secondary or repeated perception of a work that does not need the mediation of a performer - creations of fine art, cinema, music in mechanical recording, works of fiction readable by the eyes. In order to understand this case of repetition, it must be remembered that piece of art is not limited to the text (“material part” in fine arts). It represents attitude text and non-text systems. As we have seen, without taking into account the correlation with the extra-textual part, the very definition of what in the text is a structurally active element (technique) and what is not is impossible. In accordance with this, a change in the extra-textual system - a process that takes place in our minds continuously, a process in which there are features of both individual-subjective and objective-historical development - leads to the fact that in the complex complex of the artistic whole for the reader, the degree of structural activity of certain elements. Not everything objectively present in the work is revealed to every reader and at all moments of his life. And just as the repeated performance of the same piece by different artists vividly reveals the specifics of the performance, the difference in performance, the repeated perception of the same text reveals the evolution of the perceiving consciousness, the difference in its structure, a difference that would easily slip away when perceived. various texts. Consequently, in this case, we are not talking about absolute, but about relative repetition.

Thus, the differentiating, that is, the semantic function of repetition is associated with the difference in the construction or position of repeating elements and structures.

However, this essential side of the issue does not exhaust it. Identity, the process of assimilation rather than opposition, also plays a large role in repetition as an element of artistic structure. This issue will be subject to further consideration.

From the foregoing, one significant conclusion can be drawn: the fundamental moment of artistic synonymy is incomplete equivalence.

Dividing the text into structurally equalized segments introduces a certain order into the text. However, it seems very significant that this orderliness is not carried to the limit. This does not allow it to auto(138)matize and become structurally redundant. The orderliness of the text all the time acts as an organizing tendency, building heterogeneous material into equivalent rows, but not at the same time canceling its heterogeneity. If we leave aside those artistic systems that are built according to the principles of the aesthetics of identity, then in the incomplete equivalence of rhythmic series, as well as all other types of artistic synonymy, one can see a manifestation of quite common property the language of art. The structure of a natural language is an ordered set, and for a correct speaker, information about its construction is completely redundant. It is fully automated. All the attention of the speakers is focused on the message - the perception of the language (code) is fully automated. AT art systems modern type structure itself artistic language informative for the participants of the act of communication. Therefore, it cannot be in a state of automatism. Some type of ordering given in a given text or group of texts must always be in conflict with some unordered material relative to it. This is the difference between the metric scheme:

and verse:

Some kind of animal in one jump ...

>(M. Yu. Lermontov)

The first is a completely ordered series (alternation of identical elements). The second is the struggle of orderliness and diversity (a necessary condition for information content). It can be turned into a non-siha (“Some animal jumped out of a thicket with one jump ...”), completely losing the metric order, and into an abstract metric scheme (the element of disorder will be lost). But real verse exists only as a mutual tension of these two elements. Here again we encounter an essential principle: the artistic function structural level(in this case - rhythmic) cannot be understood only from a syntagmatic analysis of its internal structure - it requires semantic correlation with other levels.

In a verse on lowest level one can single out positional (rhythmic) and euphonic (sound) equivalences. The intersection of these two equivalence classes is defined as a rhyme. However, we have already said that all types of secondary equivalences cause the formation of additional semantic unities in the text. The phenomenon of structure in a verse always, in the end, turns out to be a phenomenon of meaning. This is especially clear in the example of rhyme.

The school of phonetic study of verse (Ohrphilologie) approved the definition of rhyme as a sound repetition; the coincidence of the stressed vowel and the post-stressed part of the word is rhyme. In the future, they tried to expand the definition of rhyme, taking into account the experience of poetry of the 20th century, the possibility of coincidences of pre-stressed sounds, consonantism, etc. V. M. Zhirmunsky in his book “Rhyme, its history and theory” first pointed out the role of rhyme in the rhythmic pattern of verse . He wrote: “Every audio repeat, which has an organizing function in the metrical composition of the poem" 1 . The validity of the considerations of V. M. Zhirmunsky was obvious, and his definition became generally accepted. So, B. V. Tomashevsky characterizes the nature of rhyme as follows: “Rhyme is the consonance of two words that stand in a certain place in the rhythmic construction of a poem. In Russian verse (however, not only in Russian) rhyme should be at the end of the verse. It is the terminal consonances that give a connection between two verses that are called rhyme. Therefore, rhyme has two qualities: the first quality is rhythmic organization, because it (rhyme) marks the ends of verses; the second quality is consonance” 2 . A similar definition is given by G. Shengeli, L. I. Timofeev, V. E. Kholshevnikov 3 , who argues with B. V. Tomashevsky about the obligatory position of the rhyme at the end of the verse, but does not change the definition in essence.

Thus, rhyme is characterized as a phonetic repetition that plays a rhythmic role. This makes rhyme particularly interesting for general observations of the nature of rhythmic repetition in a poetic text. It is well known that poetic speech has a different sound than prose and colloquial speech. She is melodious, easy to recite. The presence of special, inherent only in verse, intonation systems allows us to talk about the melody of poetic speech. Therefore, one gets the impression - and it is very common - about the presence in the verse of two independent elements: semantic and melodic, and one of them is sometimes identified with the rational, and the other with the emotional beginning. And if some authors are of the opinion about the correlation of the semantic and melodic sides of the verse, then very many are convinced of their separation and even opposition.

Until now, one can read in various critical articles reproaches to some poets for being carried away by thoughtless melody, Stukar's playing with meaningless sounds, and the like.

However, the fears of critics are hardly justified.

And no matter how we act, separating the sound from the content: whether we praise or vilify the author suspected of separating the sound of the verses from their meaning, we assume the impossible. In art using as material tongue, - verbal art - the separation of sound from meaning is impossible. The musical sound of poetic speech - also a way of transmitting information, that is, content, and in this sense it cannot be opposed to all other ways of transmitting information that are characteristic of language as a semiotic system. This method - "musicality" - arises only with the highest connectedness of the verbal structure - in poetry, and it should not be confused with the elements of musicality in the natural language system, for example, with intonation. Below we will try to show to what extent the sonority, "musicality" of a rhyme depends on the amount of information contained in it, on its semantic load. At the same time it will shed famous light and on the functional nature of rhyme in general.

Among other classification principles of poetry literature, one can find the division of rhyme into rich and poor. Rich rhymes are called with a large number of repeated sounds, poor - with a small one, and it is understood that rich rhymes are sonorous rhymes, while poor rhymes sound bad, gradually, as the number of matching sounds decreases, approaching non-rhymes. With such an interpretation of the concepts of musicality, the sonority of a rhyme turns out to depend on phonetic, and not on semantic features poetic speech. This conclusion seems so obvious that it is usually taken for granted. Meanwhile, it is enough to enter into a closer examination of the issue to be convinced of the falsity of such a decision.

Let's take two pairs of phonetically identical rhymes - homonymous and tautological. It is easy to see that the sonority, the musicality of the rhyme will be completely different in these cases. Here are examples, the first of which was compiled for the purpose of demonstrative clarity, and the second was borrowed from the "Experiments" by V. Ya. Bryusov:

You fed the white swans

And then you fed the geese.

You fed the white swans...

I swam nearby - the helms came together.

The sea is waiting to attack -

Tit threatens to burn

And attack Russia

London bird.

(P. A. Vyazemsky)

All looking left, right,

A coward stands on tiptoe

Like lava underfoot

Or the earth was disturbed by a coward.

(P. A. Vyazemsky)

Balding chemist Heels -

Passes into the clatter of heels.

(A. Bely)

It is enough in any of the above examples (attack - attack, coward - coward. Heels - heels) to replace the homonym with a tautological repetition, as the sonority of the rhyme will disappear. The sonority of words in rhyme and the physical nature of the sound of words in a language are not at all the same thing. One and the same complex of physical speech sounds, realizing the same phonemes of a language, can produce in rhyme the impression of both very rich and extremely poor sounding.

In this sense, the following example is very indicative:

God help you, Count von Buhl!

The prince sowed: you had to reap!

Perhaps a friend John Bull

Have to shrug

(P A Vyazemsky)

Let's do two experiments. First, let's change "background" to "John" in the first verse. Neither the phonetic nor the rhythmic nature of the Bulu-Bulu rhyme will change. Meanwhile, the degree of sonority will change decisively. The second experiment is even more curious. We will not change anything in the text under consideration. Let us only imagine that it is read in the presence of two listeners, one of whom knows that von Buhl in the first verse is an Austrian diplomat of the 19th century, the prince is Bismarck, and John Buhl is a common noun of the English. The other does not know this and imagines that in the first and third verses we are talking about the same person unknown to him, say, a certain Count John von Buhl. The degree of sonority of the poetic text for these listeners will be different. All of the above indicates that the very concept of sonority is not absolute and has not only a physical (or physico-rhythmic) nature, but also a relative, functional one. It is connected with the nature of the information contained in the rhyme, with the meaning of the rhyme. The first listener perceives the rhyme "Bulya - Bulya" as homonymous, the second - as tautological. For the first it sounds rich, for the second it sounds poor.

In all the examples given, the rhymes are phonetically identical, and rhythmically they are in the same position. Meanwhile, some of them seem sonorous, ringing, musical, while others do not make such an impression. What is different in these seemingly coinciding rhymes? Semantics. In such cases, when the rhyme sounds rich, we are dealing with homonyms: words that coincide in sound composition have different meaning. In poor-sounding rhymes - tautological - the whole word is repeated in full: not only its sound form, but also its semantic content.

Two important conclusions can be drawn from the foregoing.

First: the musical sound of a rhyme is derived not only from phonetics, but also from the semantics of the word.

Second: the definition of rhyme in the first degree of approximation could be formulated as follows: rhyme is the sound coincidence of words or their parts in a position marked relative to the rhythmic unit with a semantic mismatch. This definition will also cover tautological rhyme, since, unlike colloquial speech, poetic speech does not know absolute semantic repetition, since the same lexical or the same semantic unit, when repeated, is already in a different structural position and, therefore, acquires a new meaning. As we shall see later, in order to demonstrate a complete semantic repetition, it was by no means accidental that we had to use artificial examples: a complete semantic repetition in a literary text is impossible.

We have seen that the sound coincidence only emphasizes the semantic difference. The coinciding part of similar but different semantic units in this case becomes a “sufficient reason” for comparison: it is taken out of brackets, emphasizing the difference in the nature of the phenomena denoted by rhyming words.

The mechanism of influence of rhyme can be decomposed into the following processes. First, rhyme is repetition. As has been repeatedly noted in science, rhyme returns the reader to the previous text. Moreover, it must be emphasized that such a “return” revives in the mind not only consonance, but also the meaning of the first of the rhyming words. Something profoundly different from the usual linguistic process of transferring meanings takes place: instead of a chain of signals sequential in time that serve the purpose of certain information, there is a complexly constructed signal that has a spatial nature - a return to what has already been perceived. At the same time, it turns out that the series of verbal signals and individual words (in this case, rhymes), already once perceived according to the general laws of linguistic meanings, receive a new meaning during the second (not linear-speech, but structural-artistic) perception.

The second element of the semantic perception of rhyme is the comparison of the word and the one rhyming with it, the emergence of a correlating pair. Two words, which, as phenomena of language, are outside all types of connections - grammatical and semantic, in poetry turn out to be connected by rhyme into a single constructive pair.

Your essay is passionate, essay is smoky

Through the twilight of the lodge floated to me,

And the tenor sang hymns on the stage

Crazy violins and spring...

(A. Blok)

“Smoky” and “hymns”, if we read the proposed text as ordinary information, ignoring the poetic structure, are concepts so different that their correlation is excluded. The grammatical and syntactic structures of the text also do not give grounds for their comparison. But let's look at the text as a poem. We will see that "smoky - hymns" turns out to be connected by the dual concept of "rhyme". The nature of this dual unity is such that it includes both identification and opposition of its constituent concepts. Moreover, identification becomes a condition of opposition. The rhyme fits into the formula, extremely essential for art in general, “this and not that at the same time”.

The juxtaposition in this case is primarily formal, while the opposition is semantic. Identification belongs to the plane of expression (at the phonetic level), opposition belongs to the plane of content. "Smoky" in rhyme position requires consonance in the same way that certain syntactic relationships (such as agreement) require certain endings. Sound coincidence here becomes the starting point for semantic opposition.

However, to say that rhyme is only a sound coincidence with a semantic non-coincidence would be a simplification of the issue. Indeed, in terms of sound, rhyme, as a rule, is not a complete, but a partial coincidence. We identify words that sound different but have common phonological elements and neglect the difference in order to establish similarity. And then we use the established similarity as a basis for opposition.

In this sense, the emergence of a culture of rhyme is far from accidental precisely at the moment of maturation within the framework of the medieval consciousness of scholastic dialectics - the feeling of a complex interweaving of concepts as an expression of the complexity of people's life and consciousness. It is curious that, as V. M. Zhirmunsky noted, early Anglo-Saxon rhyme is associated with the desire to compare and contrast those concepts that were previously perceived simply as different: “First of all, rhyme appears in some constant stylistic formulas of the alliterative epic. This includes, for example, the so-called "paired formulas", combining the union "and" ("ond") two related concepts (synonymous or contrasting), in a parallel grammatical form "1.

It is no coincidence that in Russia rhyme, as an element of artistic structure, entered literature in the era of the “whirling of words” - the tense style of Moscow literature of the 15th century, bearing the imprint of medieval scholastic dialectics.

At the same time, it should be noted that the principle of constructing rhyme in medieval art differs from modern. This is due to the specificity of the forms of medieval and contemporary artistic consciousness. If modern art proceeds from the idea that originality, originality, individual originality belong to the merits of a work of art, then medieval aesthetics considered everything individual to be sinful, a manifestation of pride and demanded fidelity to the original "God-inspired" samples. Skillful repetition of the complex conditions of the artistic ritual, and not his own invention - that's what was required of the artist. Such aesthetics had its own social and ideological basis, but in this case we are only interested in one of the sides of the issue.

The aesthetic thinking of certain eras (in each era, in each ideological and artistic system, this had a special meaning) allowed the aesthetics of identity - not the creation of a new one was considered beautiful, but an exact reproduction of what was previously created. Behind such aesthetic thinking stood (in relation to the art of the Middle Ages) the following epistemological idea: the truth is not known from the analysis of individual private phenomena - private phenomena are elevated to some true and given general categories in advance. Cognition is carried out by equating particular phenomena to general categories, which are thought of as primary. The act of cognition does not consist in revealing the particular, the specific, but in the process of abstraction from the particular, raising it to the general and, as a result, to the universal.

This consciousness also determined the specificity of rhyme. The abundance of inflectional "grammatical" rhymes is striking. From the point of view of the poetic ideas common in the art of modern times, this is a bad rhyme. An inattentive reader will explain the abundance of such rhymes in the Middle Ages by weak poetic technique. This, however, must apparently be about something else. The selection of a number of words with the same inflections was perceived as the inclusion of this word in a general category (participle of a certain class, a noun with the meaning "doer", etc.), that is, it activated the grammatical meaning next to the lexical one. At the same time, the lexical meaning was the carrier of semantic diversity, while suffixes included rhyming words in a single semantic series. There was a generalization of meaning. The word was saturated with additional meanings, and the rhyme was perceived as rich.

The modern perception of rhyme is built differently. After establishing the commonality of the elements included in the class "rhyming words", differentiation of meanings occurs. The common becomes the basis for comparison, the differences - a semantic, differentiating feature. In cases where both the phonological and morphological sides are identical in the coinciding parts of rhyming words, the semantic load is transferred to the root part, and repetition is excluded from the process of meaning differentiation. The overall semantic load decreases, and as a result, the rhyme sounds impoverished (cf. “beauty - soul” in A. K. Tolstoy’s ballad “Vasily Shibanov”). At the same time, it is especially curious that the very structure that, against the background of some epistemological principles, one aesthetic model, provided the rhyme with fullness of sound, in another system of artistic knowledge turns out to be depleted. This once again confirms how erroneous is the idea of the history of rhyme as a long series of technical improvements of some "artistic device" with the same poetic content given once and for all.

At the same time, it is not difficult to see the functional commonality of rhyme in the art of different eras: rhyme exposes many facets of the word that are semantically neutral in ordinary linguistic use and makes them semantic features, loads them with information and meaning. This explains the great semantic concentration of rhyming words - a fact that has long been noted in the literature of poetry.

As can be seen from what has been said above, it is precisely on the material of repetitions that more general aesthetic regularity is revealed with the greatest clarity, that everything structurally significant in art is semantized. At the same time, we can distinguish two types of repetitions: repetitions of elements that are semantically heterogeneous at the level of natural language (repeated elements belonging to the language of the expression plan), and repetitions of semantically homogeneous elements (synonyms; the limiting case here is the repetition of the same word). We have already discussed the first case in sufficient detail. The second also deserves attention.

The reader, accustomed to the graphical perception of the text, seeing the repeated outlines of words on paper, believes that before him is a simple doubling of the concept. Meanwhile, usually we are talking about another, more complex concept associated with a given word, but complicated by no means quantitatively.

You hear: the drum is rumbling,

Soldier, say goodbye to her, say goodbye to her

The platoon goes into the fog, fog, fog,

And the past is clearer, clearer, clearer ...

(B. Sh. Okudzhava)

The second verse does not at all mean an invitation to say goodbye twice 1 . Depending on the intonation of the reading, it can mean: "Soldier, hurry up to say goodbye, the platoon is already leaving." Or: “Soldier, say goodbye to her, say goodbye forever, you will never see her again.” Or: "Soldier, say goodbye to her, to your only one." But never: "Soldier, say goodbye to her, say goodbye to her again." Thus, the doubling of a word does not mean a mechanical doubling of the concept, but a different, new, more complicated content. “The platoon is leaving in the fog, fog, fog” - can be deciphered: “The platoon is leaving in the fog, further and further away, it is out of sight.” It can be deciphered in some other way, but never purely quantitatively: "The platoon goes into one fog, then into the second and into the third." In the same way, the last verse can be interpreted as: “And the past is becoming more and more clear”, “and the past is more and more clear, and now it has reached dazzling clarity”, etc. But the poet did not choose any of our transcripts precisely because that his mode of expression includes all these conceptual shades. This is achieved insofar as the textually more accurate the repetition, the more significant the semantic-distinctive function of intonation, which becomes the only differential feature in the chain of repeated words.

But the repetition of words has another structural function. Let us recall the verse from the poem by A. Blok we have already quoted:

Your essay is passionate, essay is smoky...

"Passionate essay" and "smoky essay" are two independent phraseological combinations, one of which is based on direct, and the second - on figurative use. The combinations "passionate essay" and "smoky essay" create two semantic wholes, more complex than the mechanical sum of the concepts "essay + passionate" and "essay + smoky". However, the repetition of a word destroys the independence of these two combinations, linking them into a single, semantically even more complex whole. The word “essay” repeated twice becomes a common member of these two combinations, and such distant and incomparable concepts as “smoky” and “passionate” turn out to be a single contrasting pair, forming a higher semantic unity that is by no means decomposable into the semantic meanings of its constituent words. .

Consider from the point of view of the function of repetitions the poem by Leonid Martynov “Oh my land!”:

O my land!

One side

The fields of my native land are sleeping,

And look at the other side -

Only dozing, full of anxiety.

Restlessness is a property of spring.

We must always worry

For we are deprived of arrogance,

That tasks up to one are solved.

And solemn

One side,

The outlines of hoary antiquity,

And of course, on the other hand,

One should not be a servant of antiquity.

Only the timid

Minds are confused

The other side of silence

And the property of the moon is more pleasant to them -

Be accessible from one side only.

But soon

And the device of the moon

We will look at the other side as well.

See life from any side

Not shameful in any way.

So, already in the first stanza, the word “side” occurs three times, and in the same case. However, in fact, all three times this word carries a different load, syntactic and semantic. This becomes especially clear when comparing the first and third cases (“on the one hand”, “on the other hand”) with the second, in which the “side” (with the epithet “native”) is synonymous with the concept of “homeland”. However, upon closer examination, it turns out that the semantics of the word in the first and third cases is also not identical: it is clear that the introductory phrase “on the one hand” is not equivalent to the circumstance of the place of action “look at it from the other side”. In the latter case, we are talking about the side as a real concept (the point from which one should take a closer look) - in the first case, we have only an official turn of the clerical style of speech, hinting that the imaginary dream of native fields seems only to an inattentive, bureaucratic look, and a person, able to observe reality, sees even in immobility the fullness of unmanifested forces.

In the third stanza, "on the one hand" and "on the other hand" are syntactically unambiguous. However, they are expressively ambiguous: the second is painted in tones of irony and sounds like a parody, “paraphrasing” of the first. The contrast of this “on the one hand” and “on the other hand” is also determined by the fact that they are part of the antithesis: “... solemn, on the one hand” - “naturally, on the other hand.” "Solemn" and "naturally" in their place in the general language structure are not antitheses, since they occupy syntactically incomparable positions. According to the contextual meaning, in the adverb “naturally” only semantics of the “of course” type are realized.

But the poetic opposition has a different logic: “on the one hand” - “on the other hand” is perceived as a neutralized archiseme, emphasizing the contrasting differential semantic pair “solemn” - “naturally”. In this case, the adverb “naturally” reveals a new meaning - simplicity as the antithesis of solemnity, which, in turn, divides the entire stanza into two antithetical half-stanzas. And this, in the end, highlights the difference in the previously equated ("on the one hand" - "on the other hand"). In this case, we are talking about an intonational difference: it is easy to see that the passages will be read in a different declamatory key. One should carry information about bureaucratic, deathly pomposity, the other about natural life.

More pleasant to them is the property of the moon -

Be accessible from one side only

At the same time, the intense development of the topic of interest to us naturally leads to the fact that in the fourth stanza “the reverse side” and “on the one hand” are not random words that are poor in their own meaning. They are the basis of the antithesis of the dynamics of society and the immobility of "eternal" nature, the versatility of life and the dogmatism of "timid minds".

The absence of complete, absolute semantic repetitions in art is especially clearly revealed when considering homonymous rhymes. Such a rhyme is well known to poetry, which seeks to reveal the inner diversity of outwardly uniform phenomena. A vivid example here is one of the forms of medieval poetry of the East, the ghazal, with its redif - a repetitive word. Although in the poetry of Hafiz and the scholastic poets of the XV century. the role of redif is not the same, but it always performs a similar aesthetic function: it reveals the diversity of the content of the same concept. So, the Central Asian poet of the XV century. Katibi wrote a moralistic poem "Dah Bab", all the rhymes of which are "tejnis", that is, homonyms. About the homonymous rhymes of Mawlana Muhammad Akhli from Shiraz (XV century), E. E. Bertels writes: water)". According to the same author, another poet, Atai, "widely uses homonyms as a rhyme, which gives the verses a special poignancy" 1 .

It is easy to see that, in fact, the nature of the favorite repetition of a folk song - the refrain (refrain) - is the same. Following various couplets, that is, entering into different contexts, he acquires all the time a new semantic-emotional coloring. The repetition of words only contributes to its selection. True, such an attitude to the refrain is a relatively late phenomenon. An archaic song that does not know rhyme deals with a truly unconditional repetition of a refrain, but this is the product of a specific aesthetic, an aesthetic of identity. Modern folk, classical and modern literary song invariably give the refrain an innumerable variety of shades. So, for example, in the well-known ballad "Findlay" by R. Burns, the repeatedly repeated "said Findlay" sounds different each time. Similarly, in the ballad "The Matchmaking of Duncan Gray" (translated by S. Ya. Marshak), the refrain "This is matchmaking!" invariably acquires a new semantic connotation.

The same could easily be shown by the example of anaphora 2 (single words), as well as various forms of intonational unity inherent in poetic and rhetorical text. The intonational parallelism of verses and periods becomes here that "ground for comparison", which exposes the semantic opposition or semantic difference. Thus, we are convinced that a sufficiently general law of the structure of a poetic text will not be a mechanical repetition of parts, but their correlation, organic connection. Therefore, none of the parts of a poetic text can be understood outside the definition of its function. By itself, it simply does not exist: any part of the text receives all its qualities, all its certainty in correlation (comparison and opposition) with its other parts and with the text as a whole. The nature of this act of correlation is dialectically complex: one and the same process of juxtaposing parts of a literary text, as a rule, is both convergence - comparison, and repulsion - opposition of meanings. Rapprochement of concepts highlights their difference, remoteness reveals similarities. Therefore, to choose certain repetitions in the text does not mean to say anything about it. Identical (that is, “repeating”) elements are functionally not the same if they occupy positions that are structurally different. Moreover, since exactly the same elements reveal the structural difference between the parts of the poetic text, make it more obvious, it is indisputable that an increase in repetitions leads to an increase in semantic diversity, and not the uniformity of the text. The greater the similarity, the greater the difference. The repetition of the same parts exposes the structure.

So, repetitions of various types are a semantic fabric of great complexity, which is superimposed on the general language fabric, creating a special concentration of thought inherent only in poetry. Consequently, there is nothing more erroneous than the very common idea that although poetry has a special extra-sense musicality, but in terms of meaning they are much poorer than prose. We have already seen that the high structural organization of poetry, which creates a sense of musicality, is at the same time a high semantic complexity, completely inaccessible to an amorphous text.

A vain gift, an accidental gift...

Gift in vain and accidental -

(where not only the repeated word “gift” disappears, but the syntagmo-intonational parallelism of the parts is also destroyed), means to weaken the degree of emphasis on the words “vain” and “random”. The same thing would happen if the parallelism of the grammatical form of the second term was destroyed, as well as in all individual cases of weakening repetition. At the same time, it should be borne in mind that the degree of dependence of the meaning of the text on its structure in the case under consideration is much higher than in those where semantically comparable segments are based on obviously contrasting, regardless of their position in the verse, lexical units - antonyms (“And we hate we, and we love by chance...”). In the last example, the comparison “we hate” – “love” is also implied outside of any particular artistic construction. It is certainly included in the general language semantics of these words, which receive little from their one or another structural position. Matched pair "vain" - "accidental" - generation given designs. The semantics of the elements here is very individual and will completely disappear with the destruction of this structure. The semantics of the words in this example is occasional and entirely generated not only by the meanings of the context words, but also by their relationship in a certain structural position.

The second possible type of textual parallelism is one in which repeated elements are textually the same. It may seem that here before us is a complete coincidence. However, it is not. Textual coincidence exposes positional difference. The different position of textually identical elements in the structure leads to different forms of their correlation with the whole. And this determines the inevitable difference in interpretation. And it is the coincidence of everything, except for the structural position, that activates positionality as a structural, semantic feature. Thus, the "full" repetition is incomplete both in terms of expression (the difference in position), and, consequently, in terms of content (cf. what was said above about the chorus) 1 .

From the problem of the repetition of large compositional elements of the text, it is natural to move on to the consideration of the question of the repetition of the entire text. It is quite obvious that the artistic structure is not designed for a single transmission of the information contained in it. Anyone who has read and understood an informative note in a newspaper will not re-read it a second time. Meanwhile, it is clear that repeated reading of works of fiction, listening to a musical play, watching a movie, if these works, from our point of view, have sufficient artistic perfection, is a completely natural phenomenon. How can the repeatability of the aesthetic effect be explained in this case? 2

Secondly, there is another case to be considered - the case of a seemingly complete repetition. We repeatedly encounter it in the secondary or repeated perception of a work that does not need the mediation of a performer - creations of fine art, cinema, music in mechanical recording, works of fiction readable by the eyes. In order to understand this case of repetition, it should be remembered that a work of art is not exhausted by the text (the “material part” in the visual arts). It represents attitude text and non-text systems. As we have seen, without taking into account the correlation with the extra-textual part, the very definition of what in the text is a structurally active element (technique) and what is not is impossible. In accordance with this, a change in the extra-textual system - a process that takes place in our minds continuously, a process in which there are features of both individual-subjective and objective-historical development - leads to the fact that in the complex complex of the artistic whole for the reader, the degree of structural activity of certain elements. Not everything objectively present in the work is revealed to every reader and at all moments of his life. And just as the repeated performance of the same piece by different artists vividly reveals the specifics of the performance, the difference in performance, the repeated perception of the same text reveals the evolution of the perceiving consciousness, the difference in its structure, a difference that would easily slip away when perceiving different texts. . Consequently, in this case, we are not talking about absolute, but about relative repetition.

Thus, the differentiating, that is, the semantic function of repetition is associated with the difference in the construction or position of repeating elements and structures.

From the foregoing, one significant conclusion can be drawn: the fundamental moment of artistic synonymy is incomplete equivalence.

Dividing the text into structurally equalized segments introduces a certain order into the text. However, it seems very significant that this orderliness is not carried to the limit. This prevents it from being automated and becoming structurally redundant. The orderliness of the text all the time acts as an organizing tendency, building heterogeneous material into equivalent rows, but not at the same time canceling its heterogeneity. If we leave aside those artistic systems that are built according to the principles of the aesthetics of identity, then in the incomplete equivalence of rhythmic series, as well as all other types of artistic synonymy, one can see the manifestation of a fairly general property of the language of art. The structure of a natural language is an ordered set, and for a correct speaker, information about its construction is completely redundant. It is fully automated. All the attention of the speakers is focused on the message - the perception of the language (code) is fully automated. In contemporary artistic systems, the very structure of the artistic language is informative for the participants in the act of communication. Therefore, it cannot be in a state of automatism. Some type of ordering given in a given text or group of texts must always be in conflict with some unordered material relative to it. This is the difference between the metric scheme:

and verse:

Some kind of beast in one leap...

(M Yu Lermontov)

The first is a completely ordered series (alternation of identical elements). The second is the struggle of order and diversity (a necessary condition for information content). It can be turned into a non-siha (“Some animal jumped out of a thicket with one jump ...”), completely losing the metric order, and into an abstract metric scheme (the element of disorder will be lost). But real verse exists only as a mutual tension of these two elements. Here we again encounter an essential principle: the artistic function of a structural level (in this case, rhythmic) cannot be understood only from a syntagmatic analysis of its internal structure - it requires semantic correlation with other levels.

introduction

AT vocabulary Russian language there are 3 types of systemic relationships between words:

- homonymous (according to sound correspondence)

- synonymous (according to the proximity of the expressed values)

- antonymous (by opposition of expressed meanings)

The presence of these relations allows us to speak about a certain organization of words in the vocabulary, about the existence of a lexical system of the language.
The essence of the phenomena of homonymy, synonymy and antonymy is as follows: with homonymy, there is an identity (that is, coincidence) of sounding with a difference in the meaning of words, with synonymy - identity or similarity of meaning with a complete difference in sounding (that is, sound composition), with antonymy - the opposite meaning with a difference in the sound of the words.

These relationships between words in the lexical system of the language in the textbook
Valkova D.P., Popova R.N. and others are presented in the following table (6(:

In this paper, the phenomenon of homonymy will be considered. The phenomenon of homonymy is a topic that has been covered in linguistic literature for a very long time and is considered by such scientists as V.V. Vinogradov, Fomina M.I.,
Popov R.N., Akhmanova O.S., Lipatov A.T., Rakhmanova L.I. and others. Their disputes concern the understanding of the essence of homonymy, its occurrence in the Russian language, its use in speech, the distinction between homonymy and polysemy, homonymy and related phenomena. As a result, we can conclude that until the controversy on this issue stops, it should be considered relevant.

The purpose of this work is to give an idea of how in modern science the phenomenon of homonymy is highlighted.

Work tasks:

— to analyze different approaches in the definition of homonymy;

- to get acquainted with the history of coverage of this issue;

- show how this issue is covered in the school curriculum and textbooks;

- create didactic material for lessons on the specified topic;

2. History of the issue.

The problem of homonymy, the multifaceted aspects of its semantics have attracted the close attention of researchers for a long time. This problem had its ebb and flow, ups and downs, but at each new stage of increasing interest in it, new facets, new aspects of this linguistic phenomenon were opened.

It is known that for a long time, research in the field of homonymy focused on lexical homonymy, which, because of this, received the most complete semasiological and lexicographic interpretation. With regard to lexical homonymy, there are clearly 3 points of view.

According to the first, the earliest, only etymological
(heterogeneous) homonyms resulting from a random coincidence of sound complexes. This theory was followed by J. Gilleron, R.I. menner,
J. Orr, V.I. Abaev.

According to another, lexical homonymy has two initial sources:

- phonetic convergent evolution different words or forms (including borrowings)

— semantic divergent evolution of one word

(Bulakhovskiy L.A., Budagov R.A., Nyurop K., Ulman S.)

And according to the third, the formation of homonyms is possible as a result of word-formation processes.

(Vinogradov V.V., Smirnitsky A.I., Stepanov Yu.S., Bally Sh.)(6(

3. The concept of homonymy. Lexical homonymy

In scientific and linguistic literature, the essence of homonymy is not understood unambiguously.

The main work on this issue is an article in the journal "Problems of Linguistics" by V.V. Vinogradov "On homonymy and related phenomena" 1968.
In this article, Vinogradov V.V. gives a definition of homonymy and distinguishes between phenomena adjacent to it. In the future, I will constantly refer to this article.

And Rosenthal D.E. agrees with the point of view of V.V. Vinogradov that lexical homonyms are words that sound the same, but have completely different meanings. He defines homonymy - the sound and grammatical coincidence of language units that are not semantically related to each other.

Greek homos is the same, onima is a name.

Fomina M.I. offers a more extensive definition: lexical homonyms are two or more words of different meanings that coincide in spelling, pronunciation and grammatical design.

In lexicology, there are two types of homonyms - complete and incomplete.
(or partial).

By structure, lexical homonyms can be divided into:

Fomina M.I. offers other names: simple, or non-derivative, and derivatives. Non-derivative homonyms are most often found in the circle of nouns. In the derivative homonymy of nouns and verbs, researchers, following V.V. Vinogradov usually distinguish such varieties: homonymous derived stems each consist of two (or more) homomorphemes of the same type. lezgin-k-a (cf. lezgin) and lezgin-k-a (dance) homonymous derived bases consist of morphemes that do not match in sound design. wallet (paper industry worker) and wallet (paper wallet) in a homonymous pair of words, the derivative of the stem is felt only in one of the words, while the other (or others) undergoes a morphological process of simplification. besiege - besiege (besiege, that is, surround with troops) besiege - besiege (allocate constituent part draft) besiege-it - to reinforce (to force to slow down at full gallop, to lean back, crouching a little) one of the homonymous bases has a derivative character, the other is non-derivative. nor-to-a (reduced from nor) and mink (animal and animal skin)

O.S. Akhmanova calls such types of derived homonyms "words with a pronounced morphological structure" and distinguishes among them 5 subtypes:

Homonymy of the basics caustic (look, grass, mockery) and caustic (sugar, firewood)

Homonymy of the affixes finca (to finn) and finca (knife)

Homonymy with varying degrees of articulation straighten (galley) and straighten (passport)

Homonymy with different internal structure crossbow (a type of weapon that shoots itself) and crossbow (one who shoots himself)

Homonymy from different parts of speech oven (noun) and oven (verb infinitive)

Derivative homonymy among verbs (the most active process in the modern language) occurs in such cases when, in one verb, the prefix merges with the stem, losing its morphological separability or separability, and in another, homonymous with the first, it retains its semantic functions of a separate morpheme. call “call someone what” (cf. name) and call (many people) speak “talk teeth” (cf. conspiracy) and speak
(to speak, start speaking)

Homonymous words are characterized primarily by the fact that they correlate with one or another phenomenon of reality independently of each other, therefore, there is no associative conceptual and semantic connection between them, which is characteristic of different meanings of polysemantic words. when realizing the lexical meaning of homonyms, their mixing is practically impossible.
For example, no one will think that we are talking about the key as a "spring, source" if, standing at the door, they ask for a key, that is, "a device for activating the lock." The conceptual and thematic correlation of words is completely different, and the use of one of the homonymous words in the text (or live speech) excludes the use of the other. (Unless, of course, there is a special collision with a certain stylistic task. See.
____)

So, lexical homonymy is observed among words of the same parts of speech. At the same time, two or more lexical homonyms (full or partial) are characterized by the absolute identity of the sound and spelling complex, that is external structure(defend1 - stand to the end, defend2 - be at some distance, defend3 - protect) and all
(or parts) of grammatical forms (initial change in cases, the presence of the same number forms in three words that are full lexical homonyms: bank1 - vessel, bank2 - shallow, bank3 - special transverse seat in a boat).

4. Language phenomena similar to lexical homonymy

Homonymy as a linguistic phenomenon is observed not only in vocabulary. In the broad sense of the word, homonyms are sometimes called different language units that coincide in sound. Unlike proper lexical (or absolute) homonyms, all other consonances and various kinds of coincidences are called relative, although here it would be more correct to speak not about homonymy in the broad sense of the word, and not even about relative homonymy, but about the homonymous use of various types in speech homophones, which, as V.V. Vinogadov, includes "all kinds of unanimities or consonances - in whole constructions, and in word combinations or their parts, in separate segments of speech, in separate morphemes, even in adjacent sound combinations" (_(.

Such scientists as Rosenthal D.E., Shmelev D., Vinogradov V.V. are of the opinion that homoforms, homographs and homophones are phenomena adjacent to homonymy, since they relate to the grammatical, phonetic and graphic levels of the language.

Rosenthal D.E. believes that "strict differentiation of linguistic phenomena requires limiting proper lexical homonymy from homoforms, homophones, homographs." (_(

1. homoforms - words that coincide only in one grammatical form (less often in several). three1 - counts. in I. p. (three friends) tri2 - verb in command. incl., units h., 2 l. (three carrots on a grater)

The grammatical forms of words of the same part of speech can also be homonymous. forms of adjectives big, young can indicate:

- I.p., unit, m.p. (great success, young professional)

- R.p., singular, w.r. (great career, young woman)

- D.p., singular, f.p. (to a great career, to a young woman)

— T.p., singular, f.p. (with a big career, with a young woman)

The reason for recognizing these forms as different forms, although coinciding in sound, is that they agree with nouns that appear in different cases (moreover, the same adjectives with noun m.r. and cf.r. here have various forms- a large village, a large village, a large village).

Homoforms by their nature go beyond the vocabulary, as they belong to a different level of the language and should be studied in the morphology section (_(

2. Homophones are words that sound the same but are spelled differently. meadow - bow, hammer - young, lead - carry

These words coincide in pronunciation due to the stunning of voiced consonants at the end of a word and before voiceless consonants. Vowel change in unstressed position leads to the consonance of the words rinse - caress, lick - climb, sharp - islands, brothers - brother.
Therefore, the appearance of homophones is associated with the operation of phonetic laws.

Homophones are the subject of study not of lexicology, but of phonetics, since they manifest themselves at a different linguistic level - the phonetic one.

3. Homographs are words that are spelled the same but pronounced differently. usually they have stress on different syllables: mugs - mugs, fell asleep - fell asleep

There are more than a thousand pairs of homographs in modern Russian. Homography has direct relation to graphics system language.

Fomina M.I. offers a broad concept of homophony (Greek homos - the same, phone - voice, sound), which covers the consonance of a variety of language units:

1. the coincidence of the pronunciation of words (the so-called homophones proper, or phonetic homonyms) flu - mushroom, dock - dog, labor - tinder

2. coincidence of words and phrases (a kind of homophony) mute - not mine, skidding - by the nose, for days - with ducks

3. coincidence of separate forms of the word (the so-called homoforms, or grammatical homonyms) saw (n.) - saw (ch. in pr.v.), I fly (from fly) - I fly (from I fly), young man - care for the young mothers

the same spelling of words, but the difference in pronunciation, in particular stress (homographs):

lexical: atlas - atlas

- lexico-grammatical: village (verb) - village (n.)

- grammatical: addresses - addresses

- stylistic: compass (lit.) - compass (marine)

But Fomina M.I. agrees with V.V. Vinogradov that lexical homonymy proper (full or partial) “cannot be confused or even brought together” with homophony in the broad sense of the word, that is, with all consonances and similarities that occur in speech.

And the linguist Rakhmanova L.I. considers homophones and homoforms as types of homonyms, but recognizes that not all scientists attribute homographs to homonyms, since the main feature - different sounding contradicts common definition homonyms.

Rakhmanova L.I. identifies a special group of homoforms - these are words that have moved from one part of speech to another. straight (adverb) - straight (amplified particle)

The words of this group are distinguished from other homoforms by the fact that when they are declined as units. hours, and in the plural. in all case forms they have the corresponding homoform - adjective.

Popov R.N. notes that “paronymy is considered to be one of the close phenomena to homonymy. But at the same time, it should be borne in mind that paronymy takes place only in oral speech and has nothing to do with the lexical system of the language. (_(

Paronyms are words that are close, but not identical in sound, different in meaning and mistakenly used in speech one instead of the other.

Fact - "a real, non-fictional event, phenomenon."

Factor - " driving force, the cause of any process or phenomenon, which determines its characteristic features.

Phonetically, paronyms differ from each other in that they have different pronunciations either at the beginning of the word (president - resident) or at the end (set - complex).

Among paronyms, a significant place is occupied by a noun. Paronyms expressed by other parts of speech are less common (single - ordinary; grind off - grind off).

In grammatical literature, the so-called functional homonyms have recently been distinguished. These are similar in sound, etymologically related words related to different parts of speech. They write about it
Kolykhanova E.B. and

Shiryaeva T.G. in his work “Functional homonyms in the lexical system of the Russian language”. (_(

The collective farm field is flat. (cr. adj.)

The letters are written straight. (adverb)

I'll be right at five. (particle)

Functional homonyms are words that are used in speech as a result of transition from one part of speech to another. In such cases, several words belonging to different parts of speech are hidden behind a single sound complex.

The formation and existence of functional homonyms allows cases of double, triple (sometimes more) use of the same sound complex.

The formation of functional homonyms is carried out under certain syntactic conditions, which should be understood as a change in the syntactic function of a word, the order of words in a sentence, compatibility with other words, the nature of the connection between the members of the sentence, the ellipsis of the word being defined.

In modern research, a tendency has been established to use double names for those phenomena that are built on various kinds of coincidences, consonances. For example: homophones are phonetic homonyms, homoforms are grammatical homonyms, homomorphemes are morphological homonyms (or derivational homonyms). Sometimes such terms are used: omosyntagms - syntactic homonyms, omostylemes - stylistic homonyms.
It seems that, despite the critical attitude of researchers to this kind of double terminology, in particular to terms-phrases like "syntactic homonymy" and the like, its use does not cause confusion, but, on the contrary, makes it possible to more clearly define one or another linguistic phenomenon. (_ (

5. Homonymy and polysemy in Russian (review).

The distinction between different homonymous words and one word with many meanings, as already noted, causes many difficulties and cannot always be carried out unambiguously.

The difficulty of distinguishing between these phenomena and the complexity of their clear, consistent definition is also indicated by modern lexicographic practice. So, many words that are given as polysemantic in one dictionary are considered in another (or others) as different words, homonymous to each other.

Ways to distinguish between homonymy and polysemy:

Substituting synonyms for each homonym or for all meanings of the polysemantic, and then comparing the selected synonyms with each other. If they turn out to be semantically close to each other, we have a polysemantic word, if not - homonyms.
Comparison of the word forms of each of them, the selection of related (single-root) words, that is, the establishment of their derivational connections. if the word forms are the same or similar and there are related words that are identical in terms of the type of formation, and there is a semantic proximity between them, we can talk about polysemy.
Finding out the origin of words, that is, etymological information about words.
Comparison of the translation of Russian homonyms into other languages. This noticeably refines the idea of real homonymization.
Identification of the thematic relation of the word and the definition of typical models of lexical compatibility, as well as the semantics of the entire context as a whole.

Thus, in order to reasonably distinguish homonymy from polysemy, it is necessary to use as much comparative data as possible, which will make it possible to identify which features prevail: similar over distinctive ones, or vice versa - distinctive over similar ones. However, the decisive features for the stages of analysis are still actually semantic ones. They are, as noted modern researchers, should be recognized as the main ones when distinguishing homonymy from polysemy, they should be present in all other distinctive comparisons. (_(

The emergence of homonyms in the Russian language.

In the process of the historical development of the dictionary, the appearance of lexical homonyms was due to a number of reasons.

Rosenthal D.E. offers a clear distribution of these causes:
As a result of borrowing foreign words there may be a formal coincidence in the sound and spelling of the word "alien" and native Russian. marriage1 in Russian is related to the verb to take (cf: to marry oneself), its contemporary meaning – « family relationships between man and woman; marital relationship." marriage 2 - "spoiled, poor-quality, defective objects of production", borrowed from it. language brack – lack club1 – eng. "public organization" club2 smoke - rus. swirl

Words that entered the Russian language from different languages may turn out to be consonant. faucet1 - dutch. "shutter in the form of a tube for the release of liquid or gas" valve2 - it. "mechanism for lifting and moving goods" mat1 - German. "soft bedding made of durable material" mat2 - Arab. "defeat in a chess game" mat3 - fr. "absence of gloss, roughness of the smooth surface of the object."

French words that sound the same are borrowed from the same language. mina1 - "explosive projectile" mina2 - "facial expression" Latin. note1 - "musical sound" note2 - "diplomatic appeal of one government to another"

When new words are formed from the roots and affixes available in the language, homonyms also appear. hillfort1 - “place of an ancient settlement” hillfort2 - magnifier from the word daddy city1 - form subjective assessment from dad daddy2 - a form of subjective assessment from folder

The appearance of homonyms as a result of the coincidence of the newly formed abbreviation with a long-known full-value word. stork1 - "migratory bird"

AIST2 - automatic information station mars1 - planet

MARS2 - automatic registration and signaling machine

Homonyms become native Russian words that have undergone various changes as a result of phonetic and morphological processes that took place in the language. bow1 - an ancient weapon (once had a nasal vowel, which eventually began to sound like (y () bow2 - a garden plant I fly1 - to treat (e - b "yat") I fly2 - to fly
The source of the appearance of homonyms may be a gap in semantic structure polysemantic words, in which the individual meanings diverge so much that they are no longer perceived as belonging to one word. light1 - universe light2 - dawn, sunrise

“I wanted to travel around the whole world, but I didn’t travel around a hundredth of it ...” - “A little light - already on my feet!” (Griboedov A.S.)

In 1972, for the first time, the homonymy of the words debt - obligation and debt - borrowed was recognized and recorded in the Ozhegov Dictionary. In the 50s, these words were considered as variants of the same word with different values.
This indicates the duration of the splitting process. polysemantic word and the transformation of its meanings into independent words-homonyms, the inevitability of the appearance of intermediate, transitional cases, when it is difficult to give an unambiguous semantic description of the word. For example, the words knit (tighten with a rope) and knit are treated differently in different dictionaries.
(knitting needles, crochet); wave (something) and wave (go somewhere).

Fomina M.I. also notes the discrepancy between the meanings of a polysemantic word is observed in the language not only among native Russian words, but also among words borrowed from any one language. Interesting observations gives a comparison of homonymy of etymologically identical words: agent1 - the ruler of the state, organization agent2 - operating cause certain phenomena

(both words from Latin agens, agentis (from agere - to act) openwork1 - through mesh fabric openwork2 - keeping accounting books, documents until the last day

(from French ajour - through, summarized)

It should be noted that on the issue of the role of the disintegration of a polysemantic word in the formation of homonyms in modern lexicology there is no consensus. So,
IN AND. Abaev in the article "On the submission of homonyms in the dictionary" (see: Questions of Linguistics, 1957, No. 3) expressed the idea that new homonyms, their
"reproduction is mainly due to polysemy." EAT. Galkina-Fedorchuk in the article "On the issue of homonyms in the Russian language" (see: Russian language at school,
1954, No. 3) and Z.A. Tolmachev in the article “The formation of homonyms through the collapse of polysemy” (see: Russian Language at School, 1959, No. 4) also considered “separation of the meaning of words” as one of the productive ways of forming homonyms.
However, V.V. Vinogradov noted the unproductiveness of this method of formation, believing that "even fewer homonyms owe their formation to the semantic disintegration of a single lexeme into several homonymous lexical units such as light - the universe, and light - illumination." A.A. Reformatsky argued that in the Russian language "the majority of homonyms that arose due to borrowings", although he also recognized the fact that the process of derivative homonymy is active. A.I.
Smirnitsky called random sound coincidences the main source of replenishment of the language with homonyms. O.S. Akhmanova, recognizing the sufficient activity of homonyms arising as a result of dispersed polysemy, at the same time pointed to great difficulties, which are associated with the search for objective criteria for evaluating the completion of the process of homonymization. These articles served as a stimulus for the ongoing discussion on the issues of homonymy. (ten(

Use in speech.

In the modern Russian language, a significant number of homonyms have been recorded, and with the development of the language, their number will increase. The question arises: does homonymy prevent correct perception in speech?

The functioning of homonyms in speech, as a rule, does not cause any particular difficulties. First of all, the context clarifies the semantic structure of such words, excluding inappropriate interpretation. In addition, homonyms belong to different areas of use and have ambiguous expressive coloring, different functional attribution, as a rule, do not collide in speech. Nevertheless, the combination of the meanings of homonymous words is possible. However, in this case it is due to a certain stylistic goal, and this goal is different in different styles of speech.

The intentional clash of homonyms has always been an indispensable means of witty puns.

Even Kozma Prutkov wrote: "It's nice to caress a child or a dog, but the most necessary thing is to rinse your mouth."

Similar homophones are used in folk jokes:

“I’m in the forest, and he climbed, I’m behind the elm, and he got stuck” V. Dahl

Often there is a collision of lil even a combination in one text of both homonymous words and words that accidentally coincide in sound (homophones, homoforms, etc.) it is interesting to compare the intentional collision of partial homonyms
- “to be, to have” and to eat - “to eat”, translated by S.Ya. Marshak
"Healthy Toast" by Robert Burns:

Those who have what they have - sometimes they cannot eat,

And others can eat, but sit without bread,

And here we have what we have, but at the same time we have what we have, -

So, we have to thank the sky!

Combines consonant words, a writer, poet, publicist, as it were, brings together those objects, concepts that they designate. This technique is a means of actualization, it performs the task of communicating additional artistic information.

Hear how gunpowder began to smell

Editorials and poetry?

Feathers are stamped from the same steel

Which tomorrow will go on bayonets.

(K. Simonov "Winner")

Poets use homonymous rhymes, which often give the poem a special attraction.

You puppies! Follow me!

You will be on the kalach

Look, don't talk

Otherwise I'll beat you!

(A.S. Pushkin)

Snow said: - When I flock,

There will be a river of doves,

Will flow, shaking the flock

Reflected doves.

(Y.A. Kozlovsky)

Alena has a good braid.

And the grass in the meadow is her scythe.

Soon the meadow will pass the spit:

The time for mowing approaches.

(Y.A. Kozlovsky)

Hoodie

black crow

In the morning I scolded, sitting on a branch,

The news of that was smashed in all directions

Forty forty.

(Y.A. Kozlovsky)

The use of homonymous rhymes is all the more justified in humorous genres, for example, in epigrams.

Don't flaunt, buddy, that you have a surplus of topics. We know the works where the best themes perished. (D. Minaev)

Or homonymous consonances - the main material for a pun.

that the people are waking up

Now they give him charters,

They shout: “Shut your mouth!”

And instantly put a seal on the mouth.

(K.M. Fofanov)

The area of rhymes is my element,

And I write poetry easily,

Without thinking, without a line

I run to line from line

Even to the Finnish brown rocks

I'm dealing with a pun.

(D.D. Minaev)

Homonyms are often used to create rhyme.

You fed the white swans

Throwing back the weight of black braids ...

I swam nearby, the helms came together,

The sunset beam was strangely slanting.

Suddenly a pair of swans rushed

I don't know whose fault it was...

The sunset froze behind a haze of steam,

The alley is like a stream of wine.

(V. Bryusov)

* helm - traditional poetic. ship's rudder, stern oar.

The successful comparison of consonant forms, their playing out in speech is of great interest. However, it is necessary to be careful in word usage, since in some cases homonymy (and related phenomena) can lead to a distortion of the meaning of the statement, inappropriate comedy.

When commenting football match: "Today the players left the field without goals";

"On the TV screen you see Gavrilov in a beautiful combination."

Even professional writers and great writers are not immune from such speech errors.

Have you heard? or Is it possible to be indifferent to evil? (A.S. Pushkin)

Bibliography

For the preparation of this work, materials from the site were used.
http://base.ed.ru

INTRODUCTION

2 Ways of the emergence of homonyms in Russian

3 Features of the reflection of the concept of "homonymy" in linguistic dictionaries

1 The concept of polysemy in modern linguistics (lexical and grammatical polysemy

2 Types of formal connections of the meanings of polysemantic words: radial, chain and mixed polysemy

3 Ways to distinguish between homonymy and polysemy in modern Russian

CHAPTER 3. FUNCTIONAL AND STYLISTIC ROLE OF HOMONYMY AND POLYSEMY

CONCLUSION

REFERENCES

APPENDIX

polysemy homonym polysemantic word

INTRODUCTION

In linguistic literature there is no unity of views on the phenomenon called homonymy, and on its delimitation from what is called polysemy, or polysemy. At the same time, it is not only about different applications of the term "homonym", but rather about a different definition of the concept of "word", about different approach to "what are the possible differences between individual specific cases of the use (reproduction) of the same word, that is, which differences between such cases are compatible and which, on the contrary, are incompatible with the identity of the word."

Polysemy (polysemy) is inherent in both words and morphemes (both root and affixal), it is also inherent in constructive objects (phrases, sentences, texts). Polysemy characterizes the vast majority of words (both significant and auxiliary), which can be easily seen by opening an explanatory dictionary of any language.

The relevance of this course work is connected with the lack of a unified approach to this problem.

The object of the work is homonymy and polysemy as categories of modern linguistics.

The subject of the research is the coverage of linguistic problems in the aspect of these categories.

The purpose of this work is comprehensive study phenomena of homonymy and polysemy.

To achieve this goal, the following set of research tasks is solved in the work:

characterization of homonymy and polysemy as linguistic phenomena;

consideration of the features of the reflection of the definition of the concept of "homonymy" in linguistic dictionaries;

the study of the types of formal connections of the meaning of polysemantic words;

analysis of ways to distinguish between homonymy and polysemy in the Russian language.

The theoretical basis of the work was the works of Yu.D. Apresyan, I.K. Arkhipova, I.V. Arnold, V.V. Vinogradova, D.E. Rosenthal, E.M. Galkina-Fedoruk, V.A. Maslova, M.A. Sternina and others.

The theoretical significance of the work lies in the fact that the work gives a description of the types of homonymy, sufficient attention is paid to the classification of polysemy and the types of formal meanings of polysemantic words, various scientists were presented to these linguistic phenomena.

The practical significance of the work lies in the fact that its main provisions and conclusions can be used in the study of the modern Russian language, the style of a literary text, as well as in writing term papers and abstracts.

Work structure: course work consists of introduction, 3 chapters, conclusion and bibliography. The total amount of work is 32 pages.

CHAPTER 1. HOMONYMY AS A LINGUISTIC PHENOMENON

1 Classification of homonyms in modern Russian

Between the words that form the vocabulary of the Russian language, certain relationships are found both in the nature of the meanings they express, and in their phonetic design, that is, the similarity of their sound composition. In the vocabulary of the Russian language, there are 3 types of systemic relationships between words:

homonymous (according to sound correspondence);

synonymous (according to the proximity of the expressed values);

antonymous (by opposition of expressed meanings)

The presence of these relations allows us to speak about a certain organization of words in the vocabulary, about the existence of a lexical system of the language.

S.V. Krasnikov and V.V. Lavrentiev express the idea that the attention of linguists to the problems of homonymy "is due to the fact that, being a linguistic universal, homonymy is characteristic of almost all levels of the language and reflects the systemic relations existing in it." The essence of the phenomenon of homonymy is as follows: with homonymy, there is an identity of sound with a difference in the meaning of words.

In scientific and linguistic literature, the essence of homonymy is understood ambiguously. D.E. Rosenthal gives the following definition of homonymy - "the sound and grammatical coincidence of language units that are not semantically related to each other (from the Greek homos - the same, onima - name)."

Here is the most common classification of lexical homonyms:

Unlike polysemantic words, lexical homonyms do not have a subject-semantic connection, that is, they do not have common semantic features by which one could judge the polysemanticism of one word.

Various forms of lexical homonymy are known, as well as phenomena related to it at other levels of the language (phonetic and morphological). Complete lexical homonymy is the coincidence of words belonging to the same part of speech in all forms. An example of full homonyms is the words outfit (clothes) and outfit (order); they do not differ in pronunciation and spelling, they coincide in all case forms of the singular and plural.

With incomplete (partial) lexical homonymy, the coincidence in sound and spelling is observed for words belonging to the same part of speech, not in all grammatical forms. For example, incomplete homonyms: plant (industrial enterprise) and plant (device for driving a mechanism). The second word has no plural forms, but the first one does. Homonymous verbs bury (pit) and bury (medicine) have the same all forms perfect look(I'm burying, I've been burying, I'll be burying); forms real participles present and past tense (digging, burying), but there is no coincidence in the forms of the perfect form (I will bury - I will bury, etc.).

By structure, homonyms can be divided into root and derivatives. The former have non-derivative basis: peace (lack of war, consent - peace has come) and peace (the universe - the world is filled with sounds); marriage is a defect in production (factory marriage) ”and marriage is matrimony (happy marriage). The latter arose as a result of word formation, therefore, they have a derivative basis: assembly - the gerund of the verb "collect" and assembly - a small fold in clothes (assembly on a skirt).

Along with homonymy, "they usually consider related phenomena related to the grammatical, phonetic and graphic levels of the language."

Among consonant forms, homoforms are distinguished - words that coincide only in one grammatical form (less often - in several). For example, three is a numeral in the nominative case (three friends) and three is a verb in the imperative mood singular 2nd person (three carrots). The grammatical forms of words of one part of speech can also be homonymous. For example, the forms of adjectives large, young can indicate, firstly, the nominative singular masculine (great success, young scientist); secondly, into the genitive singular female(great career, young woman); thirdly, to the dative singular feminine (to a great career, to a young woman); fourthly, into the instrumental singular feminine (with a great career, with a young woman). These forms agree with nouns appearing in different cases. Homoforms by their nature go beyond vocabulary.

Homophones, in turn, are words that coincide in sound with a difference in morphological composition.

So, the words meadow and bow, young and hammer, carry and lead coincide in pronunciation due to the deafening of voiced consonant sounds at the end of a word and before a deaf consonant. A change in vowels in an unstressed position leads to the consonance of the words rinse and caress, lick and climb, old-timer and guarded.

Homophony can also manifest itself more widely - in the sound coincidence of a word and several words: Not you, but Sima suffered unbearably, carried by the water of the Neva; We grow up to a hundred years without old age. Homophony is the subject of studying phonetics in the light of its appearance as a linguistic phenomenon at the phonetic level of the language.

Homographs are also close to the phonetic level of the language - words that differ in pronunciation, but have one spelling variant. So, D.E. Rosenthal gives the following examples of homographs: "mugs and mugs, soar and soar." Homography, however, according to D.E. Rosenthal, is not related to the phonetic, but to the graphic system of the language.

Strict differentiation of linguistic phenomena requires to delimit proper lexical homonyms from homoforms, homophones and homographs.

Such phenomena can be used, along with proper lexical homonymy, for various stylistic purposes: to create expressiveness of speech, in puns, jokes, etc.

See, for example, Y. Kozlovsky in the poem "The Bear and the Wasps" from the series of poems "About the words diverse, the same, but different":

Carried a bear, walking to the market,

For sale to honey pot.

Suddenly on the bear - that's attack! -

The wasps decided to attack.

Teddy bear with an army of aspen

He fought with a torn-out aspen.

Could he not fall into a rage,

If the wasps climbed into the mouth,

Stinging anywhere

They got it for it.

1.2 Ways of the emergence of homonyms in Russian

In the process of the historical development of the dictionary, the appearance of lexical homonyms was due to a number of reasons.

It seems important to us to name the first case semantic splitting, the disintegration of the polysemantic. The semantic connections of the lexemes of this field diverge, and it is possible to establish the former commonality only by conducting an etymological analysis.

Consider an example. In 1972, for the first time, the homonymy of the words debt - obligation and debt - borrowed was recognized and recorded in the Ozhegov Dictionary. “In the 50s, these words were considered as variants of the same word with different meanings. This indicates the duration of the process of splitting a polysemantic word and turning its meanings into independent homonyms, the inevitability of the appearance of "intermediate, transitional cases" when it is difficult to give an unambiguous semantic description of the word. For example, the words knit (tighten with a rope) and knit (knitting needles, crochet), wave (something) and wave (go somewhere), scorch (burn with flame) and scorch (shoot in volleys), etc. are treated differently in different dictionaries.

The divergence of polysemantic meanings is also observed in borrowed lexemes. Interesting observations are made by comparing the homonymy of etymologically identical words: agent - a representative of a state, organization, etc., and agent - an effective cause of certain phenomena (both words from Latin agens - to act); openwork - through mesh fabric and openwork - keeping accounting books, documents until the last day (from French ajour - through: summarized).

It should be noted that there is no consensus in modern lexicology on the role of the disintegration of a polysemantic word in the formation of homonyms. So, V. I. Abaev in the article “On the submission of homonyms in the dictionary” expressed the idea that new homonyms, their “reproduction is mainly due to polysemy”. E. M. Galkina-Fedoruk in the article “On the issue of homonyms in the Russian language” also considers “separation of the meaning of words” as one of the productive ways of forming homonyms. However, V.V. Vinogradov noted the unproductiveness of this method of formation, believing that "even fewer homonyms owe their formation to the semantic disintegration of a single lexeme into several homonymous lexical units such as light - the universe, and light - illumination." A. A. Reformatsky argued that in the Russian language “the majority of homonyms that arose due to borrowings”, although he also recognized the fact that the process of derivative homonymy is active. AI Smirnitsky called random sound coincidences the main source of replenishment of the language with homonyms. O. S. Akhmanova, recognizing the sufficient activity of homonyms arising as a result of dispersed polysemy, at the same time pointed out the great difficulties associated with the search for objective criteria for assessing the completion of the homonymization process.

It seems to us most appropriate to consider that the method of splitting values is quite active, although its productivity for different structural types homonyms are not the same. The above examples testify to this. This is also indicated by 248 cases of dispersed polysemy noted by O. S. Akhmanova from among 2360 homonymous words cited by her in the “Dictionary of Homonyms of the Russian Language”.

Homonymy can be the result of the coincidence of sound, spelling and full or partial coincidence of the form change of the original word and the borrowed one. For example, the Russian cabin - cutting into parts coincided with the word cabin - an enclosed space on the upper deck of the ship or the superstructures of the ship (from Dutch roef - cabin); the Russian horn - "blacksmith" coincided with the horn - "horn" (from German Horn), etc. But there are relatively few such examples in the language.

Homonyms also appeared as a result of the fact that two or more words borrowed from different languages, due to certain phonetic reasons, turned out to be consonant in Russian. This is the path of the emergence of the already mentioned homonyms block - union (from the French bloc - association), block machine for lifting weights (from the English block) and an example of the homonymy of the word "marriage".

V.V. Vinogradov points to derivative homonymy as one of the ways in which homonyms appeared in the Russian language.

In the derivative homonymy of nouns and verbs, S.V. Voronichev distinguishes the following varieties:

) homonymous derived bases each consist of two (or more) homomorphemes of the same type, for example: lezgin-k-a (cf. Lezgin) and lezgin-k-a (dance), tolst-ovk-a (follower of the teachings of L. N. Tolstoy ) and thick-ovk-a (shirt of a special cut).

Morphemes of this type are called homomorphemes - phonetically coinciding affixes or inflections.

) in a homonymous pair of words, the derivative of the stem is felt only in one of the words, while the other (or others) undergoes a morphological process of simplification, cf. highlight the constituent part of the sediment), reinforce - upset (i.e., force to slow down at full gallop, lean back, crouching slightly),

) one of the homonymous bases has a derivative character. the other is non-derivative, for example: bur-to-a (reduce, to burrow) and mink (animal and animal skin).

O. S. Akhmanova calls such types of derived homonyms “words with a pronounced morphological structure” and distinguishes five subtypes among them: 1) homonymy of the bases: sharp (look, grass, mockery) and sharp (sugar, firewood); 2) homonymy of affixes: finca (to finn) and finca (knife): 3) homonymy with varying degrees of articulation: straighten (galley) and straighten (passport): 4) homonymy with different internal structure: crossbow (a type of weapon that shoots itself ) and crossbow (one who shoots himself)

Many of the derived homonymous verbs are partial lexical homonyms. Wed homonymy of derivative verbs to bury - from dig and bury - from drip, fall asleep - from sleep and fall asleep - from pour. The formation of such homonyms is largely due to the homonymy of word-forming affixes, i.e., homomorphemes.

D.E. Rosenthal also notes some cases of coincidence of the newly formed abbreviation with a pre-existing word. So, for example, cf. stork - bird and STORK - automatic information station. In this case, we can talk about homophones, since the spelling of these lexemes varies.

Features of the reflection of the concept of "homonymy" in linguistic dictionaries

In our opinion, the above classification of homonyms according to D.E. Rosenthal is the most common, but it is worth noting several other concepts that also deserve attention and study.

So, R.A. Budagov in his Introduction to the Science of Language offers the following classification:

Homonyms are words that sound the same but have different meanings.

(...) Homonyms can be of different types (...) Homonyms of the first type are usually called lexical (key and key), homonyms of the second type are morphological (three and three). A special and more complex case is lexico-grammatical homonyms [such as flow and flow]"

"Dictionary linguistic terms» O.S. Akhmanova gives the following definition of homonymy: “homonymy - Spanish. homonimia. A sound match between two or more different language units. Homonymy is sound. Homonymy is lexical. Homonymy of endings. Homonymy of case forms. Homonymy of phraseological units. Partial homonymy...

b) Homonyms (equivalent words) English. homonyms, fr. homo lnymes, germ. homonyme. Two (or more) different language units that match in sound (i.e., in terms of expression). Russian Ink - ink, key (in the castle) - key (spring).

The question of the degree of completeness of homonymy is addressed by L.A. Bulakhovsky: “A special phenomenon, important for the nature of language, is homonymy. Homonyms are two or more words that sound the same but have completely different meanings. Homonymy can have different degrees of completeness - starting from the homonymy of only individual forms (Russian, I'm flying - the 1st l. unit from "fly" and "treat" (...)) and ending with the coincidence in the entire system of forms: ( ...) scythe: 1) "agricultural tool"; 2) "hairdressing" (...) "

L. A. Vvedenskaya, T. V. Dybina, I. I. Shcheboleva note that “Homonyms are words that differ in meaning, but are the same in sound and spelling.

Homonyms are divided into lexical and lexico-grammatical.

Lexical homonyms words that are different in meaning and have the same sound and spelling in all grammatical forms are called. For example, the words outfit (clothes) and outfit (order) ...

Lexico-grammatical homonyms include words that do not coincide in sound and spelling in all grammatical forms. Among the lexico-grammatical homonyms, there are those in which the same grammatical forms coincide. For example, the nouns polka (action on the verb to weed) and polka (horizontal board) have the same sound and spelling in all case forms of the singular. There can be no such coincidence in the plural, since the abstract noun of the regiment has no plural forms.

The classic work on the nature of homonymy is the article by V.V. Vinogradov "On homonymy and related phenomena", in which the author explains that "the term "homonymy" should be applied to different words, to different lexical units, coinciding in sound structure in all its forms.

(...) If homonyms are different in their semantic structure, and sometimes in morphological composition, but identical in sound structure in all their word forms, then homonyms should be distinguished not only from consonant homophonic or matching speech chains or syntactic segments of a different quality, but also from homophonic morphemes.

However, it goes without saying that transitional and mixed types are possible here. In relation to them, the term "partial homonymy" can be applied.

N. P. Kolesnikov in the "Dictionary of Homonyms of the Russian Language" gives the following classification:

“If we define homonyms (Greek homonyma from homos - identical and oputa - name) as words with different lexical and / or grammatical meanings, but with the same (identical) spelling and / or pronunciation, then objectively we can distinguish the following types.

) Homonyms that have different lexical and grammatical meanings, but identical spelling: excellent (1. Adverb. 2. Short neuter adjective) (...)

) Homonyms that have different lexical (but the same grammatical) meaning and identical spelling and pronunciation: onion (1. Plant. 2. Weapon) (...)

) Homonyms that have different grammatical (but the same lexical) meaning and identical spelling and pronunciation; Georgians (1. Noun in the form of the nominative case;) singular. 2. The same noun in the genitive plural form) (...)

) Homonyms that have different lexical and grammatical meanings and the same spelling (with non-identical pronunciation): squirrel (1. Feminine noun in the form nominative case singular. 2. Masculine noun in the genitive singular) (...)

) Homonyms that have different lexical, but the same grammatical meaning and the same spelling (with non-identical pronunciation): Organ and organ (...)

) Homonyms that have different grammatical, but the same lexical meaning, and the same spelling (with non-identical pronunciation): waves and waves (...)

) Homonyms that have different lexical and grammatical meanings with identical pronunciation (but different spellings): forests and fox (...)

) Homonyms that have different lexical, but the same grammatical meaning with identical pronunciation (but different spelling): illuminate and consecrate (...)

) Homonyms that have different lexical, but the same grammatical meaning with identical pronunciation (but different spelling): ninety and ninety (...)

A.A. Reformatsky notes that there are “genuine homonyms - words that have the same composition of phonemes and morphological composition (the same affixal morphemes, but different roots) and at the same time in the inflectional forms of an elephant, but different origin of two previously unmatched words.

Finally, there may be cases when the same word is borrowed at different times, with different meanings and, obviously, from a source that is not completely identical, for example: from the Italian band - "a bunch of bandits" and later, from the jargon of Italian musicians , banda - "a brass band playing in the opera on stage" (whose members ... are not bandits, but bandits).

A special type of homonymy is “cases of the so-called conversion [given in the footnote: conversion - from the Latin conversio-"conversion"], when the given word passes into another part of speech without changing its morphological and phonetic composition, for example, evil - short adjective neuter and evil - adverb ... "

CHAPTER 2. POLYSEMY AS A LINGUISTIC PHENOMENON

1 Concepts of polysemy in modern linguistics (lexical and grammatical polysemy)

Despite the fact that the history of the study of polysemy has more than one decade, today it is impossible to speak unambiguously about a constructive solution to this issue. The emergence in the last years of the 20th century of studies related to a comprehensive analysis of this linguistic phenomenon (Sternina M.A., Leshcheva L.M.) is milestone formulation of the problems of polysemy as a linguistic phenomenon.

The phenomenon of polysemy, Maslova notes, “has a cognitive nature and is conditioned complex interaction language factors, psychophysiological and social nature person."

Speaking of lexical polysemy, it should be borne in mind that in the Russian linguistic tradition there are several synonymous terms for naming this phenomenon: polysemy, polysemy, semantic derivation, ambiguity. The broadest term is polysemy. It assumes that a language unit has more than one meaning. The term polysemy is sometimes used as a synonym for the term polysemy, while polysemy is usually understood only as lexical polysemy. This difference is found in the functioning of the corresponding adjectives: only a word can be polysemic, while both an expression and a statement can be polysemous.

Note that polysemic words with different shades of meaning most often have a common seme.

Modern linguistics distinguishes lexical and grammatical polysemy.

An example of grammatical polysemy is the use of verbs in the form of the 3rd person plural in indefinitely personal sentences, for example, “they count chickens in the fall”, as well as the forms of the 2nd person plural in their own personal and generalized meaning. (Compare “you can’t make out the handwriting” and “you make out things - you go for a walk”).

When lexical polysemy the realization of one or another meaning of the word is also carried out by a wider context<#"justify">polysemy and play of stylistic connotations.

The technique of combining various kinds of consonances is especially often used in poetic puns (French calembour is a play on words). In them, such a collision also performs different functions. For example, it can be used for educational and explanatory purposes. We find a similar use in many comic poetic puns by Y. Kozlovsky, in particular in a series of poems under common name"About the words of various - the same, but different." For example:

Alena has a good braid

Alena has a good braid.

And the grass in the meadow is her scythe.

Soon the meadow will pass the spit:

The time for mowing approaches.

Word game based on collision in text different meanings polysemantic words, can give speech the form of a paradox (from gr. paradoxos - strange, unexpected), i.e. statements, the meaning of which diverges from the generally accepted one, contradicts (sometimes only outwardly) common sense (“One is nonsense, one is zero”).

Random play on words as a result of homophony is found among classical poets: several cases of homophony have been noted in the works of A.S. Pushkin (Did you hear the voice of the singer of love, the singer of your sorrow behind the grove?). Involuntary puns were found in M.Yu. Lermontov (I lay motionless with lead in my chest), V.Ya. Bryusova (And your step weighed down the earth).

As for polysemy, its development occurs through metaphorical and metonymic transitions.

According to the definition of N. D. Arutyunova, a metaphor is “a trope or mechanism of speech, consisting in the use of a word denoting a certain class of objects, phenomena, to characterize or name an object included in another class, or to name another class of objects similar to the one given in in any way"

For example, Anatoly Mariengof: “There are iron muzzles on blunt-nosed lanterns ...”

Metonymy is a species trail<#"justify">Abaev V.I. Speech at the discussion on homonymy // Leksikogr. Sat. Moscow: Progress, 1960, no. 4. S. 71-76.

Apresyan Yu.D. Formal language model and representation of lexicographic knowledge // VYa, 1990, No. 6. P. 123-139.

Arutyunova N. D. Metaphor in the language of feelings // Arutyunova N. D. Language and the human world. - M., 1999. S. 385 - 402.

Arutyunova N.D. Language and the human world. M.: Progress, 1998. - 416s.

Akhmanova O.S. Dictionary of linguistic terms. Ed. 4th, stereotypical. M.: KomKniga, 2007. - 576 pages.

Budagov R.A. Introduction to the science of language. M.: Dobrosvet, 2000. - 290s.

Bulakhovsky, L.A. Introduction to linguistics. Part 2. M.: Uchpedgiz, 1953 - 459s.

Vvedenskaya, L. A., Dybina. T. V., Shcheboleva, I. I. Modern Russian literary language: textbook. allowance. - Ed.3rd, corrected and added. - Rostov n / D, 1976. - 232 p.

Vinogradov V.V. On homonymy and related phenomena // VYa, 1965, No. 5. P. 3-17.

Vinogradov V.V. Russian language. The grammatical doctrine of the word. M. L.: Uchpedgiz, 1977. - 418 p.

Voronichev S. V. On homonymy and related phenomena // Russian speech. -1990, No. 6. P.43-51.

Galkina-Fedoruk E.M., Gorshkova K.V., Shansky N.M. Modern Russian language. Lexicology. Phonetics. Morphology. M.: Librocom<#"justify">LIST OF CITED TEXTS

Bryusov V.Ya. Poetry. M.: Sovremennik, 1992

Gogol N.V. Tales. Moscow: Intrade Corporation, 2001

Granin D. Seekers. Novel. L.: Lenizdat, 1979

Kozlovsky Ya. About the words of various, identical, but different. Poetry. M., 1963

Lermontov M.Yu. Poetry. Prose. M.: AST, 2009

Mariengof A. Cynics. Novel. M.: Sovremennik, 1990

Marshak S.Ya. Products for children. Volume 1. Tales. Songs. Puzzles. A fun journey from "A" to "Z". Poems of different years. Tell in verse. Collected Works in eight volumes. Volume 1.M.: Fiction, 1968

Mayakovsky V.V. Favorites. Poetry. Biography. M.: Soyuz, 2007

Pushkin A.S. Poems. M.: World of classical literature, 2011

APPENDIX

Types of figurative meanings of a polysemantic word

Radial polysemy

Chain polysemy

Mixed polysemy

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1 Paronymy (from the Greek para near and onima name) is the phenomenon of partial sound similarity of words with their semantic difference (full or partial) Task 1. Disassemble the words by composition, explain their meaning. Evil malicious Amicable friendly Carved incised Double dual Offensive touchy Frontal frontal Neighbor neighbor Heroic heroic Military militant Task 2. Set the value of paronyms. 1. Subscription 2. Subscriber 1. Hostile 2 Hostile 1. Humanitarian 2. Humane 1. Intolerant 2. Intolerable 1. Secretive 2 Hidden 1. Economical 2. Economical 1. Spectacular 2. Effective 1. Irresponsible 2. Irresponsible 1. Monogram 2 Monograph A) A document for the right to use B) One who uses a subscription A) Hostile, from the word "enemy" B) Hostile, full of enmity, hatred A) Humane, philanthropic B) Relating to the field of science humanitarian cycle A) Unable to understand and share other people's views and opinions B) That which is impossible to endure (for example, pain) A) Unrevealed B) Hidden, secret A) Thrifty, able to save B) Associated with the economy, economy A) Efficient, giving results B) Producing effect, attracting attention A) Unwilling to be responsible for what he does B) Unable to respond to evil, protect himself A) Treatise, devoted to one topic B) Monogram, intertwined initials Task 3. Indicate an unacceptable mixture of paronyms in sentences. 1. Having written an autobiography, you need to put your signature at the end. 2. Behind the tickets at the box office were travel allowances. 3. Oleg put on a raincoat and hurried to work.. Three years later, we met with Petya, but he did not recognize me.. The personality of my friend has changed over the years beyond recognition. 6. Tourists wandered in the forest for half a day. 7. Bazarov has a remarkable mind. 8. The book is a source of knowledge, its sound content will educate our youth, instill in them sincerity.

2 Task. Add the missing word to the sentence. 1. Learn to recognize. He immediately me. The jury unanimously agreed that the film deserves the first prize. The group immediately had him as their leader. 2. Present to provide. We were introduced. First me to him, then him to me. Refugees temporary accommodation, please have your documents for verification. imagine that you have won a car. 3. Person personality. Yours is familiar to me. He is definitely outstanding. with a diplomatic passport is inviolable. It is very important not to lose in a dispute. Signature painted. Put yours at the end. In the Italian city of Pompeii, beautiful houses have been preserved on the walls. Without your document is invalid.. Convincingly convincing. The deputy spoke very much. Your proof is not always. Do you think these arguments? 6. Satisfying satiety. We had lunch. Both wolves and sheep are safe. 7. Humanitarian humane. Literature, philosophy, history subjects of the cycle. a person cannot hurt a child. Help is coming to the country. 8. Ignorant impolite. the person never says hello. can't talk about such complicated things. 9. Intolerant Intolerant He was an exceptionally human being. I never listened to anyone's opinion. The pain was very intense. 10. Practical hands-on. I don't need a theory, I need a result. He is very human. After the lecture there were classes. 11. Living room hotel. The host received guests in his Chinese "European" built in the 19th century. They didn't have it in their apartment. She works as a maid in. 12. Main capital. the role in this film is played by S. Nikitin. the heroes of this novel are Rudin and Elena.

3 Proper names are written with a letter. the thought of the novel is the beauty of the world. 13. Become stand up stop in line. We are early to be in time for the first train Train. My watch My motto is "Early to bed, early" The boy fell, but quickly. 1. Put on dress. Dress up dress up. warm coat, it's cold outside. Mother your daughter in the latest fashion. He has a tailcoat and a black waistcoat. They are like for the holiday "Study, my little one, yourself." Verification work 1. Test. From the words given in brackets, choose the correct one and indicate its number in the table. 1. Only (1- ignorant, 2 ignorant) does not know this poem by Pushkin. 2. Hooligans offended (1- innocent, 2- innocent) passers-by 3. At night, pedestrians are required (1- special, 2- special) attention .. The search for the missing dog is not (1- married, 2- crowned) with success .. Cabinet of literature (1-pride, 2-pride) of our school. 6. Literary (1- legacy, 2- legacy) of the poet is very interesting. 7. For the children of our female workers, the factory (1-represents, 2-provides) places in kindergartens and nurseries. 8. The teacher (1 - put on, 2 - put on) glasses and began to dictate a sentence. 9. (1- construction, 2- development, 3- construction) houses are already ending. 10. This hero chest (1- covered, 2 closed) machine gun. 11. Victor always (1- was, 2 showed) a role model. 12. This athlete (1 found, 2 - earned) the respect of his comrades. 13. The performance deserved (1- recognition, 2 appreciation) of the audience. 1. Flood is the biggest danger that (1 - warns, 2 lies in wait) to the explorer in the cave. 1. Petya's bad deed (1 discussed, 2 condemned) the whole class answer Test work 2. Test. Note the violations of the lexical norm associated with the mixing of paronyms. Indicate the numbers of the proposals in table A. 1. The girl will play the title role in the film "Blue Portrait" 2. The examination of the letters was entrusted to an employee of the criminogenic police department. 3. The harp is used to accompany the voice or to accompany various solo instruments. Myopia may continue to increase throughout life; this is progressive myopia.

4 B This book has a dual character. 2. Occasionally came across broken charging boxes, swept stacks of last year's hay and some other rubbish traces of former battles. 3. Because of a large number the number of inveterate Muscovites visiting is small.. Various stories by Lavrenev were screened one after another. At the beginning of the conference, the rostrum was presented to the guests for greetings. Preparation for the exam (A 3). Exercises for independent work and self-control. 1. In which sentence should artificial be used instead of the word artificial? 1) An artificial swimmer will not drown in the sea either. 2) At the age of ten months, the child was transferred to artificial feeding. 3) Love was not real, artificial, but then it seemed to me that it was real.) The victim had to do artificial respiration. 2. In which sentence should horse be used instead of the word equestrian? 1) He is the owner of a stud farm and some kind of factory. 2) Neither horse nor foot can escape fate. 3) The road led out of the grove to a clearing, and they immediately heard horse stomping and neighing.) An equestrian detachment was walking along the road. 3. In which sentence should the word misdemeanor be used instead of the word deed? 1) His words remain words and never turn into actions, into deeds. 2) This young man is capable of noble deeds. 3) The selfless deed of a classmate was enthusiastically discussed by the guys.) In the old days, students were punished for great deeds with soldiers .. In which sentence, instead of the word present, should the word provide be used? 1) Our house is something like a castle. 2) The actor was able to represent the singing of the nightingale. 3) You urgently need to submit a business trip report.) I present you the opportunity to resolve these issues on your own .. In which sentence should the word diplomatic be used instead of the word diplomatic? 1) Konstantin is a soft, subtle, very diplomatic person. 2) The answer was composed in diplomatic terms. 3) He constantly violated diplomatic etiquette by talking to ambassadors without taking into account the requirements of speech behavior.) The editor-in-chief's speech turned out to be unexpectedly evasive and diplomatic. 6. In which sentence, instead of the word singular, should the word unique be used? 1) Summarizing his observations (and they turned out to be far from isolated), the researcher concluded about the time of writing this ancient manuscript. 2) This case turned out to be far from isolated, and almost every year it is repeated. 3) Dmitry remained the most cheerful, or rather the only person in the group, who joked endlessly.) You need to try to pay attention to the phenomena as a whole, Anya to its individual manifestations. 7. In which sentence, instead of the word trustful, should the word trust be used? 1) Among gullible squirrels, you will certainly meet one with a bare, scorched tail like a stick. 2) The relationship between the boss and his subordinate gradually acquired a more trusting character. 3) It was a trusting, timid and weak creature.) His brothers were so naive and trusting that it was not difficult to deceive them.

5 A 1. Key. 1 1.2, 2 2, 3.2.3 8 1, 9 1.2, A 2 it correct stress. AnAlog, apostrophe, aristocracy, asymmetry, pampered, unrestrained, religion, will turn on (from NF - turn on), exorbitantly, August, agent, alcohol, anonymous, gas pipeline, block, bureaucracy, gas pipeline, ironing, long-standing, democracy, hyphen, production, contract.) Test work 1 Key answer Key A 1 X 2 X 3 X X Key B 1 X 2 X 3 X X Test work 2. Preparation for the exam

Paronyms are words that are similar in sound, but differ in meaning and meaning. There are a lot of them in Russian. For example, toast health resort, warranty - guaranteed, secretive - hidden, spare

A lesson in courage class hour. Classroom teacher 5 "A" class Goncharova E. V. Are there heroes in our time? Purpose: Education of civil-patriotic feelings. Tasks: 1) Form a representation of students

TEST 1. "GENITAL" Option 1 1. I don't have (brother, sister). 2. There is no (telephone, TV) in my room. 3. I think it won't be tomorrow (rain, snow). 4. He did not have (a visa). 5. Not on this street

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Portal for the student. Self-training

Tutoring

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