How were the interests of the estates represented in Russia? What problems arose? It is important to define the political system Russia XVI in. Education estate-representative monarchy in Russia was expressed, first of all, in the convocation Zemsky cathedrals . What are the largest Zemsky cathedrals took place in the XVI-XVII centuries? What estates were represented? What role did representatives play? Estate - in history feudal Europe a social group that possesses fixed in law or custom and transmitted by ...
2925 Words | 12 Page
Zemsky Sobors in the history of Russia
higher vocational education STATE UNIVERSITY OF MANAGEMENT INSTITUTE OF CORRESPONDENCE TRAINING Department of History and Political Science Control task SUMMARY on the discipline "National History" topic Zemsky cathedrals in the history of Russia Completed by a student absentee form training in the specialty of specialization __________________ I course _____________ group number of student card ( record book) ____________...
4402 Words | 18 Page
History of the fatherland 1613
Content 1 Zemsky the cathedral 1613. The reign of the Romanovs. Domestic and foreign policy of Mikhail Romanov 3 2 Board Alexei Mikhailovich. Cathedral Code of 1649. The development of serfdom The beginning of the formation of absolutism 8 3 The case of Patriarch Nikon. The split in Russian Orthodox Church 14 4 The struggle to eliminate the consequences of unrest in foreign policy. Smolensk war. Construction of the Belgorod notch line. Seat of Azov 15 Test No. 10 21 References 22 1 Zemsky the cathedral 1613...
4852 Words | 20 Page
Zemsky Sobors
"TYUMEN STATE UNIVERSITY" Nizhnevartovsk economic and legal institute(branch) CHAIR OF ECONOMICS, MANAGEMENT AND BUSINESS LAW CONTROL WORK on the discipline "History government controlled" on the topic " Zemsky CATHEDRALS "Completed: 1st year student of the direction "State and municipal management" group G-11) Full name Checked by: Elena Kasatkina ...
3272 Words | 14 Page
Zemsky Sobors
the reign of Ivan the Terrible, in the middle of the 16th century, an organ of class representation was formed - zemstvo the cathedral . Further story zemstvo cathedrals during the second half of the 16th - 17th centuries is closely connected with changes in social structure and class system, with development class struggle, with the evolution of the state apparatus. R. G. Skrynnikov believes that Russian state 16th century to zemstvo cathedral 1566 was an autocratic monarchy with an aristocratic boyar Duma, and from that time ...
3602 Words | 15 Page
Zemsky Sobors
Introduction. The work of L. V. Cherepnin " Zemsky cathedrals Russian state in the XVI-XVII centuries" is a continuation of the monograph "The Formation of the Russian Centralized State in XIV-XV centuries». initial form political centralization in Russia was a class-representative monarchy. Under the reign of Ivan the Terrible, a body of estate representation is being formed - zemstvo cathedral . The fate of history zemstvo cathedrals during the second half of XVI-XVII in. closely related to changes in the social structure...
1240 Words | 5 Page
Zemsky Sobors
Terminology...............................................4 What such zemstvo cathedrals .........................................4 The emergence zemstvo cathedrals .................................5 Types zemstvo cathedrals ................................................. .5 Periodization zemstvo cathedrals ...................................6 What issues were discussed at the cathedrals .............7 Zemsky the cathedral 1549 ...............................................7 Chosen glad...
2647 Words | 11 Page
Zemsky Sobors
1. Zemsky cathedrals . 2. Legend of cathedral 1550 3. Analysis of the legend. 4. Composition cathedrals 1566 and 1598 5. Service and commercial people in their composition. 6. Zemsky the cathedral and earth. 7. Meaning zemstvo representations. 8. Order of conciliar meetings. 9. The meaning of the cathedral cross-kissing. 10. Communication cathedrals with local worlds. 11. Origin and meaning zemstvo cathedrals . 12. The thought of the all-terrestrial cathedral . Zemsky cathedrals This body in our literature adopted the name zemstvo cathedral...
7537 Words | 31 Page
Zemsky Sobors
Electoral system Zemsky cathedrals 1549 can be considered the year of birth zemstvo cathedrals . Zemsky the cathedral originated in the 16th century as an organ that was supposed to replace the feeders. It was the "parliament of officials". Zemsky cathedrals of a nationwide character, requiring the participation of representatives of the ruling class of the whole earth, to some extent replaced the princely congresses and, together with the Duma, inherited them political role. In the same time zemstvo the cathedral - this is the body that replaced the vecha, having perceived ...
665 Words | 3 Page
xc cxvvdvdvd
Bread gradually became the main commercial product of agriculture. I. MIKHAIL FYODOROVICH KROTKY (ROMANOV) LIFE YEARS: 1596–1645 REIGN: 1613-1645 First Russian tsar of the Romanov dynasty (1613-1917). Was chosen to reign Zemsky cathedral February 7, 1613. Born July 12, 1596 in Moscow. Son of the boyar Fyodor Nikitich Romanov, Metropolitan ( later patriarch Filaret) and Xenia Ivanovna Shestova (later - nun Martha), nee Shestova. Michael was a cousin...
10960 Words | 44 Page
RGZ land right
2 1 Socio-political thought of Russia about Old Russian zemstvo cathedrals …………………………………………………………………………………… 2 Historical appearance conditions zemstvo cathedrals ………………………. 3 Definition of " zemstvo the cathedral » and classification zemstvo cathedrals … 4 Activity zemstvo cathedrals …….. Conclusion………………………………………………………………… List of used sources…………….. Introduction Topic « Zemsky cathedrals » selected for term paper to some extent under the influence of internal political ...
6168 Words | 25 Page
Zemsky Sobors of Russia
Plan Introduction 1. Concept and origin Zemsky cathedrals ; 2. Classification and composition Zemsky cathedrals , the order of conciliar meetings; 3. Role Zemsky cathedrals in the life of the state. Conclusion List of sources used 4. Introduction historical periods was organized differently. In this paper, I will attempt to study one of the many links in the public ...
3069 Words | 13 Page
Theme Zemsky Sobors 16
Theme Zemsky cathedrals 16-17th century Contents Introduction 1. Zemsky cathedrals as an organ estate-representative monarchy 1.1. emergence Zemsky cathedrals 1.2 Composition cathedrals 1.3 Meaning zemstvo cathedrals 2.Classification zemstvo cathedrals 2.1 Zemsky cathedrals under Ivan 4 2.2. Zemsky cathedrals period of "Time of Troubles" 3. The reason for the decline Zemsky cathedrals Introduction The initial form of political centralization in Russia was a class-representative monarchy that has developed ...
5450 Words | 22 Page
Zemsky Sobors and their role in government
Content Introduction ………………………………………………………………… 3 1. Zemsky cathedrals and the history of their appearance…………………………….. 4 2. Classification and compound cathedrals …………………………………….. 7 3. Role and functions Zemsky cathedrals in public administration.. 10 Conclusion. ……………………………………………………………….13 List of used literature………………………………………... 15 Introduction zemstvo cathedrals 16th - 17th centuries was one of the most popular problems of historiography. Interest in this issue...
2173 Words | 9 Page
The role of Zemsky Sobors in the history of Russia
Role Zemsky cathedrals in the history of Russia Zemsky the cathedral (Council of the whole earth) is the central estate-representative institution of Russia with mid-sixteenth until the end of the 17th century. On the cathedral political, economic and administrative issues were discussed. | Concept | Time of occurrence | Role | |« The cathedral reconciliation" - the first the cathedral , convened by Ivan | 1549 | Cathedral ...
678 Words | 3 Page
Zemsky Sobors of the 16th-17th centuries.
WORK in the discipline: "NATIONAL HISTORY" Zemsky cathedrals XVI-XVII centuries Contents Introduction 3 CHAPTER 1. Zemsky cathedrals XVI-XVII centuries 1.1. Origin and meaning zemstvo cathedrals 5 1.2. Composition, character and significance zemstvo cathedrals in the XVI-XVII centuries. 10 1.3...
3789 Words | 16 Page
Reunification of Ukraine with Russia
1st year student 1st semester Tashkent, 2011 Content Introduction ………………………………………………………………….3 Main part 1. War of Liberation Ukrainian People……………………...4 2. Letter from Khmelnytsky to Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. Zemsky the cathedral 1653 ……………………………………...………...11 Conclusion……………………………………………………... .....……14 References.…………………………………………..……..….15 Introduction Relevance of the topic. Modern...
3008 Words | 13 Page
Sobornoe ulojenie
Yielding to the harassment of the nobles and the top tenants, the government called Zemsky the cathedral to develop a new lawsuit (codes). On the Zemsky the cathedral On September 1, 1648, elected representatives from 121 cities and counties arrived in Moscow. Provincial nobles (153 people) and townspeople (94 people) ranked first in terms of the number of elected representatives. The "Cathedral Code" as a new code of laws was drawn up by a special commission, discussed Zemsky cathedral and printed in 1649 in the amount of 2 thousand copies. At that time...
2174 Words | 9 Page
Zemsky Sobors in the Political Mechanism of Muscovite Russia
society………………………………………..……6 1.1. Socio-political thought of Russia about Zemsky cathedrals ……….6 1.2. Concept definition « Zemsky cathedrals ”, causes and classification Zemsky cathedrals …………………..…….9 1.3. Compound Zemsky cathedrals ……………………………...………………...15 Chapter 2. Zemsky cathedrals Muscovite Rus, characteristics and significance……………………………………………………………………………….19 2.1. Activity Zemsky cathedrals ………………………………………...19 2.2. Role Zemsky cathedrals in strengthening the Russian state…….…...27 Conclusion………………………………...
557 Words | 3 Page
Zemsky Sobors of the Russian State in the 16th-17th Centuries.
1 course (12 group) Direction: "Social work" Correspondence form of education. Mashulkina A.N. Abstract: Zemsky cathedrals Russian states in the 16th and 17th centuries. Plan: 1) Introduction. 2) What is zemstvo cathedrals . 3) Appearance zemstvo cathedrals . 4)Type zemstvo cathedrals . 5) Periodization zemstvo cathedrals . 6) What issues were discussed at cathedrals . 7)Zemsky the cathedral 1549. 8) How was it zemstvo reform. 9) Conclusion. 10) List of references. Introduction. The initial form of political centralization...
1386 Words | 6 Page
Ukrainian national liberation war of the middle of the 17th century
Hetmans was that the system of foreign (Polish) courts in Ukraine was destroyed by force of arms. Poles entered into late XVI Art. so called "statutory" courts, which had a pronounced estate character: for civil cases, there were zemstvo courts, for criminal cases - city and for land cases - Podkomorskie. In Lublin there was a "tribunal", which was the highest court of appeal. The courts of Magdeburg operated in the cities. 1. Prerequisites and driving forces of the liberation war...
2536 Words | 11 Page
story
The Zborovsky treaty, which significantly expanded the lists of registered Cossacks (from 8 thousand to 40 thousand). The treaty was of a compromise nature and could not reconcile warring parties. In the same year, the liberation war also engulfed Belarus in addition to Ukraine. AT 1651 in the battle near Verestechko, the Ukrainian army was defeated due to the betrayal of the Crimean Khan, an ally of Khmelnitsky. The new Treaty of Belotserkovsky, which limited the number of registered Cossacks to 20,000, satisfied the rebels even less. Khmelnytsky, okay...
2732 Words | 11 Page
Sociology
features, patterns of development Russian state and society. In this topic, I want to highlight the features political system Rossi during the period estate-representative monarchy, the essence of government bodies - the Boyar Duma and Zemsky cathedral , show how powers were distributed between central and local institutions. The most important socio-economic processes that took place in Russia in the 16th century were: the completion of the unification of Russian lands and the formation of a single centralized ...
2761 Words | 12 Page
Comparison of the English Parliament and Zemsky Sobors
Comparison of the English Parliament and Zemsky Cathedrals Parliament of England: In the first half of the 14th century, Parliament began to be divided into upper house of Lords and lower house of Commons. Sitting in the House of Lords feudal power, representatives of the ecclesiastical and secular aristocracy, who were members of the Great Royal Council. The system of case law prevailing in England gave grounds to the lord who received an invitation to the Council to consider himself a permanent member of the upper house. Therefore, the number of lords was small. In the House of Commons...
589 Words | 3 Page
Dates
cathedrals and the Faceted Chamber, brick walls. 1485 - Accession of Tver to Moscow. 1489 - Accession to Moscow of the Vyatka land. 1497 - Sudebnik of Ivan III. End XV-beginning of XVI centuries - Formation of the Russian centralized state. 1500-1503, 1507-1508, 1512-1522, 1534-1537 - Russian-Lithuanian wars. 1502 - End of the Golden Horde. 1503 - Church the cathedral
2434 Words | 10 Page
Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov historical portrait
a course towards reconciliation in the country devastated by the Time of Troubles, further centralization of power and streamlining of the state administration system. Reliance on the Boyar Duma and Zemsky cathedrals. Convocation Zemsky cathedrals - in 1615 and from 1633 - after the death of Filaret, who limited their powers. zemstvo authorities by limiting the power of governors, that is, limiting localism. The order system was restored and further developed. 1627-...
863 Words | 4 Page
Vladimir Rus
1484-1508 - Construction of the current Moscow Kremlin. construction cathedrals and the Faceted Chamber, brick walls. 1485 - Accession of Tver to Moscow. 1489 - Accession to Moscow of the Vyatka land. 1497 - Sudebnik of Ivan III. End of the XV-beginning of the XVI centuries. - Formation of the Russian centralized state. 1500-1503, 1507-1508, 1512-1522, 1534-1537 - Russian-Lithuanian wars. 1502 - End of the Golden Horde. 1503 - Church the cathedral on the issue of monastic land ownership (Nil Sorsky - Joseph Volotsky) ...
2490 Words | 10 Page
Relations between Russia and Ukraine from the 17th century to the present day.
agreed to an agreement that could not be enforced. Only 40,000 Cossacks! But what am I to do with the rest of the people? They will kill me, but on the Poles will rise anyway." Both sides continued to prepare for the fight, and it began again in February 1651 when the attack of the Poles took by surprise the detachment of Colonel Danila Nechay in the town of Krasnoe. In battle, Nechai and his comrades laid down their heads. The main opposing forces converged in June near Berestechko. It was one of biggest battles XVII century...
8970 Words | 36 Page
Peasant Wars and urban uprisings of the 17th century.
service people "according to the instrument", that is, archers and gunners. General discontent continued to grow. On June 1, 1648, the so-called salt riot. The crowd stopped the carriage of the king returning from pilgrimage and demanded to change the head Zemsky order of Leonty Pleshcheev. Pleshcheev's servants tried to disperse the audience, which only provoked even more bitterness. On June 2, pogroms of boyar estates began in Moscow. The clerk Nazariy Chistoy was killed, whom Muscovites considered the inspirer of the salt ...
4374 Words | 18 Page
Wars on the territory of Belarus in mid-seventeenth century
major battle wars 1648- 1651 years on the territory of Belarus. The 30,000th Cossack-peasant army on July 31, 1649 in the battle of Loev was defeated by the troops of Hetman J. Radziwill. After that, the anti-feudal struggle on the territory of Belarus began to wane. Attempts to renew it in the summer of 1650 and 1651 gg. were suppressed by the troops of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (J. Radziwill). However, Cossack pens continued to penetrate Belarus. And only in 1651 under the terms of the Bila Tserkva peace treaty (September 17 1651 years) the Cossacks left the Belarusian ...
1169 Words | 5 Page
The efficiency of the state management
"History of public administration in Russia" Zemsky cathedrals in the history of Russia Ivanovo, 2011 Table of contents Introduction……...……………………………………………………………………… 3 Chapter I. What is zemstvo cathedrals ……………………………………………..6 Chapter II. The largest zemstvo cathedrals ………………………………….……..11 Chapter III . Cathedral Code of 1649…………………………………….15 Chapter IV. Periodization of history zemstvo cathedrals ……………………….....18 Chapter V. Classification zemstvo cathedrals ………………………………….....19 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………...
4440 Words | 18 Page
Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich - the beginning of the formation of absolutism
spiritual life of the people. The king also supported them. However, some believed that ancient Russian handwritten books (Abvakum) should be taken as the basis, others - Greek originals (Nikon). Tsar Alexei matured and no longer needed guardianship; he himself wrote to Nikon in 1651 year that "his word became good and terrible in the palace." These words, however, were not entirely justified in practice. The soft, sociable nature of the king needed an adviser and friend. They became Nikon. Being at that time a metropolitan in Novgorod, where, with his characteristic ...
2647 Words | 11 Page
Alexey Mikhailovich
Nikita Odoevsky, who ordered to increase the salary of the army (archers) - the main military support of the autocrat. Archers drowned the uprising in blood. Exactly N. Odoevsky subsequently handed over to the tsar a petition filed from the nobility and the tops of the town about convocation Zemsky cathedral to restore order in court and administration. Under the leadership of the same N. Odoevsky, as well as F. Volkonsky and S. Prozorovsky, Alexei Mikhailovich signed at the beginning of 1649 the text of the Cathedral Code compiled by these boyars - the new foundations of legislation ...
1512 Words | 7 Page
story
who on December 4, 1611 was there "announced" king. In the autumn of 1611, on the initiative of K. Minin and D. Pozharsky, invited by him, in Nizhny Novgorod was formed Second militia. In August 1612, it approached Moscow and liberated it on October 26, 1612. In 1613 Zemsky the cathedral elected 16-year-old Mikhail Romanov as king, his father, Patriarch Filaret, returned to Russia from captivity, with whose name the people linked hopes for the eradication of robbery and robbery. In 1617, the Treaty of Stolbovsky was signed with Sweden, which received a fortress ...
5550 Words | 23 Page
Peter 1
which he promised not to rule without Zemsky cathedral and the Boyar Duma. Already under the first tsars of the Romanov dynasty, a significant strengthening of royal power and weakening the role of class-representative bodies in public life. Mikhail Fedorovich's promise to rule in accordance with Zemsky cathedral and the Boyar Duma was not accidental: in conditions of economic ruin and weakness central government The king was forced to seek support. This support was primarily Zemsky the cathedral . Throughout the reign...
3015 Words | 13 Page
Control_IOGP
4 2. Boyar Duma. 5 2.1. The composition and principles of the formation of the Boyar Duma. 5 2.2 The role of the Boyar Duma in the system of state-representative authorities monarchy. 6 3. Zemsky cathedrals in Russia. 8 3.1 History of occurrence. 8 3.2 Organizational structure. 9 3.3 The composition and order of representation of estates. 9 3.4 Competence zemstvo cathedrals . 10 4. The reasons for the transition from the palace - patrimonial to the command - voivodship system of government. 11 5. Orders, competence and strengthening of bureaucratic tendencies in their activities...
4921 Words | 20 Page
summary summary of Russian foreign policy 16-19 centuries (end of
1632-1634 Smolensk War (Poland) return of Smolensk ( Zemsk . the cathedral ) Siege of Smolensk for 8 months (voivode B. Shein ) 1634 - Polyanovsky world. Russia's refusal from Smolensk, Chernigov and Novgorod lands. Vladislav - renunciation of the throne, MF - king. 1637-1642 Capture of Azov (Crimea, Osm. imp.) Retention of Azov by the Cossacks The Cossacks seized Azov on their own initiative. Appeal to the king. 1642 - Zemsky the cathedral . There is no unity of opinion. The Cossacks are forced to leave Azov. ...
1540 Words | 7 Page
Microsoft document Word
dragoons). Throughout the country they collected bread for service people, increased taxes - direct and extraordinary. In April 1632, the king died in the Commonwealth Sigismund III, and the struggle for power, usual for the time of kinglessness, flared up. In June Zemsky the cathedral in Moscow decided to start a war with Poland for Smolensk. Moved there at the end of summer Russian army boyar M.B. Shein. In December it reached Smolensk. Russia has to fight alone against Poland: neither Sweden nor Turkey entered the war...
2924 Words | 12 Page
History of the 16th-17th century
Lecture number 4. 31.10 1 3 Mikhail Fedorovich. Alexander Mikhailovich. PETER 1 Mikhdil Fedorovich 1613-1645 izboan zemstvo cathedral applicants Pozharsky Trubetskoy Galitsin Mstislavsky The rule is not to invite foreigners. Michil ustul to reign at the age of 16, February 1613 was elected king. Zemsky cathedrals always sit once a year. The Saltykovs (maternal relatives) helped. First of all, I dealt with the participants in the turmoil. The Stolbovsk peace was concluded with Sweden. We signed the Deulin truce, we were losing...
1540 Words | 7 Page
Palace coups in Russia (XVII century)
the most convenient". In addition to the tsar and the patriarch, the affairs of state administration were, as it has long been done, persons from the boyars and other nobles who were pleasing to them - relatives, in-laws, favorites. These are the same Romanovs, Sheremetevs, Cherkasskys, Streshnevs and others. Zemsky cathedrals met almost continuously for the first ten years of Mikhail Fedorovich's reign. The main task facing Russia was to restore the country's ruined economy, internal order and stability. Mikhail Fedorovich (1613-1645) went to...
5362 Words | 22 Page
Russia in the 17th century socio-economic, domestic and foreign policy development
zemstvo cathedrals - the cathedral »), zemstvo cathedrals included representatives of the local nobility and townspeople. Appearance zemstvo cathedrals
3475 Words | 14 Page
Ghjnj
Mikhailovich persistently developed and put into practice the idea of unlimited royal power and its divine origin, successfully fought the claims Patriarch Nikon to put the church power above the royal; activity ceased Zemsky cathedrals , the role of the Boyar Duma decreased. Alexei Mikhailovich led an active foreign policy. Most major success there was the reunification of Ukraine with Russia (1654) and the return of part of the original Russian lands - Smolensk, Seversky land with Chernigov and Starodub...
1307 Words | 6 Page
Reunification of Russia and Ukraine
thought that discussed Russian-Polish relations. It was decided to send a large Russian embassy with proposals for peace conditions, and also to deal with preparation in case of rejection of these proposals for war with Poland. It was intended to convene Zemsky the cathedral and on it to consider the issue of accepting Ukraine into the Russian state. To speed up the reunification of Ukraine with Russia in March 1653, the Ukrainian embassy headed by S. Muzhilovsky and K. Burlyai left for Moscow. Ukrainian representatives...
5553 Words | 23 Page
All about genres scientific style
urged Moscow to take Ukraine "under high hand» the Moscow sovereign and to conduct joint actions against Poland. February only 1651 G. Zemsky The cathedral agreed in principle to this. Negotiations with Turkey were more successful: the Sultan gave the order Crimean Khan to help Khmelnitsky as a vassal of the Ottoman Empire with all his might. spring 1651 hostilities resumed. On the eve of this, another drama occurred in Khmelnitsky's personal life: his second wife Elena was convicted of intercourse ...
3512 Words | 15 Page
Story
class, and, above all, the local nobility (nobles and boyar children), the emergence of zemstvo cathedrals -occasional meetings to discuss and resolve critical issues internal and foreign policy. In addition to the Boyar Duma and the top of the clergy ("consecrated the cathedral »), zemstvo cathedrals included representatives of the local nobility and townspeople. Appearance zemstvo cathedrals meant the establishment in Russia of a class-representative monarchy, characteristic of most Western European ...
Kaluga State Pedagogical University
them. K.E. Tsiolkovsky
Department of History and Political Science
Zemsky Sobors in the history of Russia
Abstract of a 3rd year student
Faculty of Psychology
FP groups - 311
Latysheva Evgeniya
Kaluga, 2005
1. Historiography…………………………………………………………3
2. What are Zemsky Sobors…………………………………………..6
3. The largest Zemstvo cathedrals………………………………….…...10
4. Cathedral Code of 1649……………………………………..14
5. Periodization of the history of Zemsky Sobors………………………....17
6. Classification of Zemsky Sobors…………………………………..18
7. Conclusions…………………………………………………………….....20
8. References………………………………………………….22
HISTORIOGRAPHY
The question of zemstvo councils of the 16th - 17th centuries. was one of the most popular problems of noble-bourgeois historiography. Interest in this problem, in addition to its purely scientific significance, was largely due to the fact that noble-bourgeois historians often looked for prototypes of representative institutions in Zemstvo Sobors, the introduction of which, as it seemed to them, should have become a condition further development state system in Russia in the 19th-20th centuries.
Return to the past public institutions as if showing the direction of the Russian autocracy along the path of turning it into a bourgeois monarchy without revolutionary upheavals and upheavals. It is no coincidence that attention to zemstvo cathedrals escalated during the periods of the first and second revolutionary situations and during the revolution of 1905-1907.
In the volumes “History of Russia from Ancient Times” by S. M. Solovyov, published annually since 1851, book by book, the material relating to the Zemsky Sobors was systematized and their actual history was reproduced. The source study base for studying the activities of Zemsky Sobors at that time was still very insufficient. These were predominantly act materials, published in the "Collection of State Letters and Treaties" and in publications Archaeographic Commission, some data are given in the "History" by N. M. Karamzin. Solovyov also used some new archival documentation (for example, embassy files). Therefore, it is possible to begin the history of the study of zemstvo cathedrals with his work.
Further study of the zemstvo sobors was associated with the introduction of new sources into scientific circulation and a more complete use of those already known in the press. The new materials revealed by I.N. Zhdanov made it possible to more comprehensively master the activities of Stoglav in 1551 as a church-state meeting of a special type, which he called the "church-zemstvo council." S. F. Platonov extracted a number of information about Zemsky Sobors from “palace categories” and “bit books”. I. I. Dityatin found in the archives of the Ministry of Justice and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs documents on the cathedral of 1651 (the act of the council, voivodeship replies, draft letters to the council, the verdict on the election of representatives) and other materials of the 17th century.
In connection with the study of the Zemsky Sobor of 1648-1649, the thought of scientists turned to the Cathedral Code as a source. One of the tasks of the source analysis of the monument was to establish the extent to which elected people took part in its development. The condition for solving this problem was the use of a versatile methodology: the study of the text of the Council Code, marginal notes, its comparison with other sources, etc.
A new stage in the study of zemstvo cathedrals was opened by the studies of V. O. Klyuchevsky. He put forward three methodological premises. First, we must proceed from the fact that zemstvo sobors are “a special type of popular representation, different from Western representative assemblies”, where there was a struggle between social classes and social classes with the government. Secondly, it is necessary to study “the connection of the ancient Russian zemstvo sobors with the soil that grew them, with native institutions”, to find out “what social worlds sent these representatives to the councils, when did these worlds arise and how were these worlds arranged, who and why did they choose their representatives”. Thirdly, it is necessary to catch "the prospects in the history of the cathedral representation: did this institution have any development, historical growth, or did it freeze the same as it was born, remaining a political undergrowth."
In Soviet literature, the theme of zemstvo sobors did not immediately take its rightful place. In the 20-40s, articles appeared that introduced new materials about individual cathedrals into scientific circulation: 1613, 1616, 1639, 1683-1684. Concerning general concepts development of this political body, they basically adjoined the ideas prevailing in pre-revolutionary historiography.
A number of interesting considerations about Zemsky Sobors were expressed by VK Nikolsky. As if summing up the results of the study of this institution in pre-revolutionary historiography, he emphasized its complexity and the diversity of specific forms of manifestation.
A series of new investigations in this area was initiated by an article by MN Tikhomirov. The author, first of all, formulated his attitude to those disagreements on the issue of zemstvo sobors, which were revealed even in pre-revolutionary literature. He emphasized that the approach to the topic of V. N. Latkin (the Russian cathedral is a representative body of the European type) is closer to him than V. O. Klyuchevsky (the Russian cathedral is a “political underage”). Noting that “the question of zemstvo sobors in the conditions of disenfranchised autocratic Russia in the 19th century is not only a historical but also a political one,” Tikhomirov considered it timely and urgent task revisit the study of cathedrals as class-representative institutions. The author reviewed the data on all known councils of the 17th century, showing the conditions and consequences of their convocation.
At present, the history of Zemsky Sobors is still of interest to researchers. The cathedrals left many legal monuments (codes, judicial codes, etc.), which are of great historical interest.
WHAT IS THE COUNCIL OF COUNCILS
Zemsky Sobors - the central estate-representative institution of Russia in the middle of the 16-17th century. The appearance of Zemsky Sobors is an indicator of the unification of Russian lands in single state, weakening of the princely-boyar aristocracy, growth political significance nobility and partly upper posad. The first Zemsky Sobors were convened in the middle of the 16th century, during the years of exacerbation of the class struggle, especially in the cities. Popular uprisings forced the feudal lords to rally for a policy that strengthened state power, economic and political position the ruling class. Not all zemstvo sobors were properly organized class-representative assemblies. Many of them were convened so urgently that there was no question of choosing representatives from the localities to participate in them. In such cases, in addition to the “consecrated cathedral” (higher clergy), the Boyar Duma, the capital’s service and commercial and industrial people, persons who happened to be in Moscow on official and other business spoke on behalf of the county service people. Legislative acts that determined the procedure for choosing representatives to councils did not exist, although the idea of them arose.
The Zemsky Sobor included the tsar, the Boyar Duma, the Consecrated Cathedral in full force, representatives of the nobility, the upper classes of the townspeople (trading people, large merchants), i.e. candidates of the three estates. Zemsky Sobor as a representative body was bicameral. The upper chamber included the tsar, the Boyar Duma and the Consecrated Cathedral, who were not elected, but participated in it in accordance with their position. Members of the lower house were elected. The order of elections for the Council was as follows. From the Discharge Order, the governors received an order on elections, which was read to the inhabitants of cities and peasants. After that, estate electoral lists were drawn up, although the number of representatives was not recorded. Voters gave their elected mandates. However, elections were not always held. There were cases when, during the urgent convocation of a council, representatives were invited by the king or local officials. In the Zemsky Sobor, a significant role was played by the nobles (the main service class, the basis of the royal army), and especially merchants, since their participation in this government agency the solution of monetary problems depended on providing funds for state needs, primarily defense and military. Thus, in the Zemsky Sobors, the policy of compromise between different layers ruling class.
The regularity and duration of meetings of the Zemsky Sobors were not regulated in advance and depended on the circumstances and the importance and content of the issues discussed. In a number of cases, the Zemsky Sobors functioned continuously. They solved the main issues of external and domestic policy, legislation, finance, state building. Issues were discussed by estates (by chambers), each estate submitted its written opinion, and then, as a result of their generalization, a conciliar verdict was drawn up, adopted by the entire composition of the Council. Thus, the government authorities had the opportunity to reveal the opinions of individual classes and groups of the population. But in general, the Council acted in close connection With royal authority and Duma. Councils gathered on Red Square, in the Patriarch's Chambers or the Assumption Cathedral of the Kremlin, later - the Golden Chamber or the Dining Hut.
It must be said that the bulk of the population - the enslaved peasantry - was not part of the zemstvo sobors as feudal institutions. Historians suggest that only once, at the council of 1613, was apparently present a small number of representatives of the black-skinned peasants.
In addition to the name "Zemsky Sobor", this representative institution in the Moscow State had other names: "Council of All the Earth", "Cathedral", " General advice”, “Great Zemstvo Duma”.
According to dry encyclopedic language, The Zemsky Sobor is the central class-representative institution of Russia in the middle of the 16th-17th centuries. Many historians believe that zemstvo councils and class-representative institutions of other countries are phenomena of the same order, subordinate to general patterns historical development although each country had its own specific features. Parallels are seen in activities English Parliament, states-general in France and the Netherlands, the Reichstag and Landtags of Germany, the Scandinavian rikstags, diets in Poland and the Czech Republic. Foreign contemporaries noted similarities in the activities of the cathedrals and their parliaments.
It should be noted that the very term "Zemsky Sobor" is a later invention of historians. Contemporaries called them "sobor" (along with other types of meetings) "council", "zemstvo council". The word "zemstvo" in this case means state, public.
The first council was convened in 1549. It adopted the Sudebnik of Ivan the Terrible, approved in 1551 Stoglavy Cathedral. The Code of Laws contains 100 articles and has a general pro-state orientation, eliminates judicial privileges specific princes and strengthens the role of the central state judiciary.
What was the composition of the cathedrals? This issue is considered in detail by the historian V.O. Klyuchevsky in his work "The composition of the representation at the Zemsky Sobors ancient Russia”, where he analyzes the composition of the cathedrals on the basis of the representation of 1566 and 1598. From the cathedral of 1566, dedicated to the Livonian War (the cathedral spoke in favor of its continuation), a sentencing letter, a complete protocol with a list of names of all the ranks of the cathedral, have been preserved, total in 374 people. Council members can be divided into 4 groups:
1. Spiritual persons - 32 people.
It included the archbishop, bishops, archimandrites, abbots and monastery elders.
2. Boyars and sovereign people - 62 people.
It consisted of boyars, okolnichi, sovereign clerks and other senior officials with a total of 29 people. The same group included 33 ordinary clerks and clerks. representatives - they were invited to the council by virtue of their official position.
3. Military service people - 205 people.
It included 97 nobles of the first article, 99 nobles and children
boyars of the second article, 3 Toropetsky and 6 Lutsk landowners.
4. Merchants and industrialists - 75 people.
This group consisted of 12 merchants of the highest rank, 41 ordinary Moscow merchants - “Muscovite merchants”, as they are called in the “conciliar charter”, and 22 representatives of the commercial and industrial class. The government expected advice from them in improving the system of tax collection, in the conduct of commercial and industrial affairs, which required trading experience, some technical knowledge that the clerks and indigenous governments did not possess.
In the 16th century Zemsky Sobors were not elective. “Choice as a special power for a particular case was not recognized then necessary condition representation, - wrote Klyuchevsky. - A metropolitan nobleman from Pereyaslav or Yuryev landowners was a representative of Pereyaslav or Yuryev nobles at the cathedral because he was the head of the Pereyaslav or Yuryev hundreds, and he became the head because he was a metropolitan nobleman; he became a metropolitan nobleman because he was one of the best Pereyaslav or Yuryev service people ‘in the fatherland and in the service’”.
From the beginning of the 17th century the situation has changed. When changing dynasties, new monarchs (Boris Godunov, Vasily Shuisky, Mikhail Romanov) needed to recognize their royal title on the part of the population, which made class representation more necessary. This circumstance contributed to some expansion of the social composition of the “elected”. In the same century, the principle of the formation of the "Tsar's Court" changed, and the nobles began to be elected from the counties. Russian society left to its own devices during the Time of Troubles, “it involuntarily learned to act independently and consciously, and the idea began to arise in it that it, this society, the people, was not a political accident, as Moscow people used to feel, not aliens, not temporary inhabitants in someone’s that state ... Next to the sovereign will, and sometimes in its place, now more than once there was another political force- the will of the people, expressed in the verdicts of the Zemsky Sobor, "wrote Klyuchevsky.
What was the election procedure?
The convocation of the cathedral was carried out by a draft letter, which was heard from the king to famous people and localities. The letter contained the agenda items, the number of electives. If the number was not determined, it was decided by the population itself. In draft letters it was clearly stipulated that " the best people”, “kind and intelligent people”, to whom “sovereign and zemstvo affairs are a custom”, “with whom one could talk”, “who would be able to tell grievances and violence and ruin and how the Muscovite state would be filled” and “arrange the Moscow state, so that everyone comes to dignity, ”etc.
It should be noted that the requirements for property status no candidates were presented. In this aspect, the only restriction was that only those who paid taxes to the treasury, as well as people who served, could participate in the elections held by estates.
As noted above, sometimes the number of elected people who needed to be sent to the council was determined by the population itself. As A.A. Rozhnov in the article “Zemsky Sobors of Moscow Russia: legal characteristic and meaning”, such an indifferent attitude of the government to the quantitative indicators of popular representation was not accidental. On the contrary, it obviously followed from the very task of the latter, which was to convey the position of the population to supreme power give him the opportunity to be heard by her. Therefore, the determining factor was not the number of persons who were part of the Council, but the degree to which they reflected the interests of the people.
Cities together with their counties constituted constituencies. At the end of the elections, a protocol of the meeting was drawn up, which was certified by all those participating in the elections. At the end of the elections, a “choice by hand” was drawn up - an election protocol, sealed with the signatures of voters and confirming the suitability of the chosen ones for the “Sovereign and Zemstvo cause”. After that, the elected persons with the “reply” of the governor and the “electoral list at hand” went to Moscow to the Discharge Order, where the clerks were convinced of the correctness of the elections.
The deputies received instructions from voters, mostly verbal, and upon their return from the capital they had to report on the work done. Cases are known when attorneys who failed to achieve the satisfaction of all petitions local residents, asked the government to issue them special “protective” letters that would guarantee them protection from “every bad thing” from disgruntled voters:
“They, elected people, in the cities, the governors from city people, were ordered to protect them from all sorts of bad things, so that your sovereign’s decree was taught by your sovereign at the council Code, according to the petition of the Zemstvo people, not against all articles of your sovereign’s decree”
The work of the delegates at the Zemsky Sobor was carried out mainly free of charge, on " voluntary". Voters provided the elected only with a "reserve", that is, they paid for their travel and accommodation in Moscow. The state, however, only occasionally, at the request of the people's deputies themselves, "commended" them for carrying out the deputy duty.
Issues decided by Councils.
1. The election of the king.
Council of 1584 Election of Fyodor Ioannovich.
According to the spiritual 1572, Tsar Ivan the Terrible appointed his eldest son Ivan as his successor. But the death of the heir at the hands of his father in 1581 abolished this testamentary disposition, and the tsar did not have time to draw up a new will. So his second son Fedor, becoming the eldest, was left without a legal title, without an act that would give him the right to the throne. This missing act was created by the Zemsky Sobor.
Council of 1589 Election of Boris Godunov.
Tsar Fedor died on January 6, 1598. The ancient crown - the Cap of Monomakh - was put on by Boris Godunov, who won the struggle for power. Among his contemporaries and descendants, many considered him a usurper. But such a view was thoroughly shaken thanks to the works of V. O. Klyuchevsky. A well-known Russian historian argued that Boris was elected by the correct Zemsky Sobor, that is, it included representatives of the nobility, clergy and the upper classes of the townspeople. Klyuchevsky's opinion was supported by S. F. Platonov. Godunov's accession, he wrote, was not the result of intrigue, for the Zemsky Sobor chose him quite consciously and knew better than we did what he was choosing for.
Council of 1610 Election Polish king Vladislav.
The commander of the Polish troops advancing from the west to Moscow, hetman Zolkiewski, demanded from the “seven boyars” the confirmation of the agreement between the Tushino Boyar Duma and Sigismund III and the recognition of Prince Vladislav as the Moscow tsar. "Seven Boyars" did not enjoy authority and accepted Zholkevsky's ultimatum. She announced that Vladislav would convert to Orthodoxy after receiving the Russian crown. In order to give the election of Vladislav to the kingdom the appearance of legality, a semblance of a Zemsky Sobor hastily gathered. That is, the Council of 1610 cannot be called a full-fledged legitimate Zemsky Sobor. In this case, it is interesting that the Cathedral in the eyes of the then boyars was essential tool to legitimize Vladislav on the Russian throne.
Council of 1613 Election of Mikhail Romanov.
After the expulsion of the Poles from Moscow, the question arose of electing a new tsar. Letters were sent from Moscow to many Russian cities on behalf of the liberators of Moscow, Pozharsky and Trubetskoy. Information came about the documents sent to Sol Vychegodskaya, Pskov, Novgorod, Uglich. These letters, dated mid-November 1612, ordered representatives of each city to arrive in Moscow before December 6, 1612. As a result of the fact that some of the candidates were late with their arrival, the cathedral began its work a month later - on January 6, 1613. The number of participants in the cathedral is estimated from 700 to 1500 people. Among the candidates for the throne were representatives of such noble families as the Golitsyns, Mstislavskys, Kurakins and others. Pozharsky and Trubetskoy themselves put forward their candidacies. As a result of the elections, Mikhail Romanov won. It should be noted that in the Council of 1613 for the first time in their history, black-snouted peasants took part.
Cathedral of 1645. Approval on the throne of Alexei Mikhailovich
New royal dynasty for several decades she could not be sure of the firmness of her positions and at first needed the formal consent of the estates. As a consequence of this, in 1645, after the death of Mikhail Romanov, another "electoral" council was convened, which approved his son Alexei on the throne.
Cathedral of 1682. Approval of Peter Alekseevich.
In the spring of 1682, the last two "electoral" zemstvo sobors in the history of Russia were held. At the first of them, on April 27, Peter Alekseevich was elected tsar. On the second, on May 26, both became kings younger son Alexei Mikhailovich, Ivan and Peter.
2. Questions of war and peace
In 1566, Ivan the Terrible gathered estates to find out the opinion of the "land" on the continuation Livonian War. The significance of this meeting is set off by the fact that the cathedral worked in parallel with the Russian-Lithuanian negotiations. Estates (both nobles and townspeople) supported the king in his intention to continue hostilities.
In 1621, a Council was convened regarding the violation of the Deulino truce of 1618 by the Commonwealth. In 1637, 1639, 1642. estate representatives gathered in connection with the complication of relations between Russia and Crimean Khanate and Turkey, after the capture of the Turkish fortress of Azov by the Don Cossacks.
In February 1651, the Zemsky Sobor was held, the participants of which unanimously spoke out in favor of supporting the uprising of the Ukrainian people against the Commonwealth, but then no concrete assistance was provided. October 1, 1653 Zemsky Sobor adopted a historic decision on the reunification of Ukraine with Russia.
3. Financial matters
In 1614, 1616, 1617, 1618, 1632 and later Zemsky Sobors determined the amount of additional fees from the population, decided the question of the fundamental possibility of such fees. Councils 1614-1618 made decisions on "pyatins" (collecting a fifth of the income) for the maintenance of service people. After that, "Pyatynshchiki" - officials who collected the file, using the text of the conciliar "verdict" (decision) as a document, traveled around the country.
4. Domestic policy issues
The very first Zemsky Sobor, which we already wrote about, was dedicated to just internal affairs- adoption of the judge of Ivan the Terrible. The Zemsky Sobor of 1619 resolved issues related to the restoration of the country after the Time of Troubles and the determination of the direction of domestic policy in the new situation. The Council of 1648 - 1649, caused by mass urban uprisings, resolved issues of relations between landowners and peasants, determined the legal status of estates and estates, strengthened the position of the autocracy and new dynasty in Russia, influenced the solution of a number of other issues.
On the next year after the adoption Cathedral Code in again the council was convened to put an end to the uprisings in Novgorod and Pskov, which could not be suppressed by force, especially since the rebels remained fundamentally loyal to the monarch, that is, they did not refuse to recognize his authority. The last "zemstvo council", which dealt with issues of domestic policy, was convened in 1681-1682. It was devoted to carrying out the next transformations in Russia. The most important of the results was the “conciliar act” on the abolition of parochialism, which made it possible in principle to increase the efficiency administrative apparatus in Russia.
Duration of the cathedral
Meetings of members of the cathedral lasted unequal times: some groups of elected conferred (for example, at the council of 1642) for several days, others for several weeks. The duration of the activities of the collections themselves, as institutions, was also not the same: issues were resolved either in a few hours (for example, the council of 1645, which swore allegiance to the new Tsar Alexei), then within several months (the cathedrals of 1648 - 1649, 1653). In 1610-1613. Under the militias, the Zemsky Sobor turns into the supreme body of power (both legislative and executive), which decides questions of domestic and foreign policy and operates almost continuously.
Completion of the history of cathedrals
In 1684, the last Zemsky Sobor in Russian history was convened and dissolved.
He resolved the issue of eternal peace with Poland. After that, the Zemsky Sobors no longer met, which was the inevitable result of the reforms carried out by Peter I social structure Russia and the strengthening of the absolute monarchy.
Significance of cathedrals
From a legal point of view, the power of the tsar was always absolute, and he was not obliged to obey the zemstvo councils. Councils were an excellent means for the government to find out the mood of the country, to get information about the state of the state, whether it could bear new taxes, wage war, what abuses existed, and how to eradicate them. But the councils were most important to the government in that they used their authority to carry out measures which under other circumstances would have aroused displeasure, if not even resistance. Without the moral support of the councils, it would not have been possible to collect for many years those numerous new taxes that were imposed on the population under Michael to cover urgent public spending. If the cathedral, or the whole earth, has decided, then there is nothing to do: willy-nilly, one has to fork out beyond measure, and even give away the last savings. It is necessary to note the qualitative difference between zemstvo sobors and European parliaments - there was no parliamentary war of factions at the sobors. Unlike similar Western European institutions, the Russian Councils, having real political power, did not oppose the Supreme Power and did not weaken it, extorting rights and benefits for themselves, but, on the contrary, served to consolidate and strengthen the Russian kingdom.
There were 57 cathedrals in total. One must think that in reality there were more of them, and not only because many sources did not reach us or are still unknown, but also because in the proposed list the activities of some cathedrals (during the first, second militias) had to be indicated in general, in while there were probably more than one meeting, and it would be important to note each one.
Partner News
Zemsky Cathedral* October 1 (11), 1653 was assembled to decide on the inclusion of Ukraine into the Muscovite state.
In the 17th century most of Ukraine was part of the Commonwealth - the united Polish-Lithuanian state. official language on the territory of Ukraine was Polish, state religion- Catholicism. Increase feudal duties, religious oppression of Orthodox Ukrainians caused dissatisfaction with the Polish domination, which in the middle of the XVII century. grew into liberation war Ukrainian people.
The uprising started the war Zaporozhian Sich in January 1648 Bohdan Khmelnitsky was at the head of the uprising. Having won a number of victories over the Polish troops, the rebels took Kyiv. Having concluded a truce with Poland, Khmelnytsky in early 1649 sent his representative to Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich with a request to accept Ukraine under Russian rule. Having rejected this request due to the difficult internal situation in the country and unpreparedness for a war with Poland, the government at the same time began to provide diplomatic assistance, allowing the import of food and weapons to Ukraine.
In the spring of 1649, Poland resumed hostilities against the rebels, which continued until 1653. In February 1651, the Russian government, in order to put pressure on Poland, for the first time announced at the Zemsky Sobor that it was ready to accept Ukraine into its citizenship.
After a long exchange of embassies and letters between the Russian government and Khmelnitsky, Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich in June 1653 announced his consent to the transfer of Ukraine to Russian citizenship. On October 1 (11), 1653, the Zemsky Sobor decided to reunite Left-bank Ukraine with Russia.
On January 8 (18), 1654, in Pereyaslavl the Great, the Rada unanimously spoke in favor of Ukraine joining Russia and entered the war with Poland for Ukraine. According to the results Russian-Polish war 1654-1667 The Commonwealth recognized the reunification of Left-Bank Ukraine with Russia (Andrusovo truce).
The Zemsky Sobor of 1653 was the last Zemsky Sobor assembled in its entirety.
* Zemsky Sobors- the central class-representative institution of Russia in the middle of the 16-17th century. The Zemsky Sobor included the tsar, the Boyar Duma, the Consecrated Cathedral in full force, representatives of the nobility, the upper classes of the townspeople (trading people, large merchants), i.e. candidates of the three estates. The regularity and duration of meetings of Zemsky Sobors were not regulated in advance and depended on the circumstances and the importance and content of the issues discussed.
Literature:
- Zertsalov A.N. On the history of zemstvo sobors. M., 1887
- Pushkareva N. Zemsky Sobors // Around the world. 2001-2009
- "Council of the whole earth" // Russian idea. 2006
- Cherepnin L.V. Zemsky Sobors of the Russian State. M., 1978
In the autumn of 1650 a campaign was undertaken in Moldavia. This campaign thwarted the raid of the Turkish-Tatar invaders on Russia. The hetman sought from the Sultan an order to the Crimean Khan to support Khmelnitsky in his new campaign against the Polish king. Knowing that King Jan Casimir was gathering large forces, the hetman actively prepared to repulse the enemy.
At the request of Khmelnitsky, the Russian government allowed the passage of Cossack troops through Russian territory to strike at the Polish troops in the Lithuanian-Belarusian lands. The arrival of the Cossacks in Belarus caused a new upsurge in the liberation movement there.
At the beginning of 1651, the Russian government convened the Zemsky Sobor in Moscow specifically to consider the issue of accepting Ukraine into Russia.
The war with Poland resumed in 1651. This time, the khan and his horde joined the army of Khmelnitsky.
At the beginning of the battle, success was on the side of the people's army. However, on the third day of the battle, the khan betrayed again; he withdrew from his horde and moved east, began to smash the defenseless Ukrainian cities and villages. Khan detained the hetman as his prisoner. The people's army found itself in a very difficult situation. Nevertheless, a significant part of the army, led by Ivan Bohun, escaped defeat and retreated.
Meanwhile, Khmelnitsky was freed from the khan's captivity. A new people's army soon gathered near Belaya Tserkov. Khmelnytsky could not quickly and completely restore the forces lost near Berestechko. However, the position of the army of Jan-Kazimir worsened as it moved towards the Dnieper, the population of which rose up against the enemy. Under such conditions, in September 1651, a new, Belotserkovsky treaty was concluded.
Concluding the Bila Tserkva Treaty, the hetman, like the whole people, was not going to give up the continuation of the war, from the struggle for the unification of Ukraine with Russia.
5. Zemsky Sobor 1653
On May 22, 1652, the battle near Batoga (on Podolia) ended with the complete defeat of the gentry army. It became increasingly clear that Poland was powerless to restore its power in Ukraine and prevent its unification with Russia. Turkey's predatory aspirations became more active, and the possibilities of its and Crimea's rapprochement with Poland expanded. At the same time, the victory at Batoga convinced the tsarist government that the Commonwealth was weakened.
In 1653, the Russian government resolutely took the path of joining Ukraine to Russia.
The government of the Commonwealth resumed the war in Ukraine. Polish army began to devastate Ukraine in order to force the Ukrainian people to submit. populace in Ukraine were in an exceptionally difficult situation.
At the end of April 1653, a Russian embassy headed by Prince Repnin was sent to Poland. The embassy demanded from the Polish king the renewal of the Zboriv Treaty and an end to the oppression of the Ukrainian people. The Polish government refused to comply with these demands, insisting on the full restoration of the power of the Polish gentry in Ukraine.
In May 1653, the Russian government convened the Zemsky Sobor to consider the issue of uniting Ukraine with Russia and the war against Poland. The council was held in Moscow, in the Pomegranate Chamber of the Kremlin. In the work of the Zemsky Sobor, in addition to the tsar, the patriarch and the higher clergy, “boyars, devious, thoughtful people, stewards and solicitors took part. and Moscow nobles, and residents, and nobles from cities, and boyar children. guests and living rooms and cloth hundreds and black hundreds, and palace settlements, merchant and other ranks, people and archers.
Given the repeated requests of Ukraine. and also taking into account the danger that threatened the existence of the Ukrainian people from the Polish and Turkish-Tatar invaders, the Zemsky Sobor in Moscow on October 1, 1653 agreed to the admission of Ukraine to Russia and the declaration of war against gentry Poland for the liberation of Ukraine, Belarus and Smolensk .
The decision of the Zemsky Sobor on October 1, 1653 also reflected the patriotic moods of the masses of Russia, their desire to reunite with the fraternal Ukrainian people, their willingness to make sacrifices to implement this decision.
In October 1653, the Russian government sent the Great Embassy to Ukraine, headed by the boyar V. Buturlin. The Kremlin soon solemnly announced the beginning of the war for Ukraine.
Khmelnitsky with his army participated at that time in a new campaign against the Polish army. The meeting with the royal army took place at Zhvanets (not far from Kamenetz-Podolsk). Hetman and this time was forced to conclude an alliance with the khan. By the end of November, the troops led by him completely wrested the initiative from the hands of the enemy, exhausted and surrounded royal army and were ready to strike her the last blow. However, this time the khan also demanded that Khmelnitsky conclude peace with the king, and then participate in a joint attack on Russia. Bogdan Khmelnitsky resolutely refused to comply with these demands.
