The word is the unit of the normative text. It plays a key role in the normative text, if only because it is impossible to compose sentences that carry a semantic load without words.

In principle, the word expresses some concept that reveals itself outside with the help of the term. It turns out that the word is both a concept and a term.

There are the following requirements for terms regarding their use in normative documents: - clarity; -- uniqueness; -- Approbation; - self-explaining; - profitability; -- other. However, in practice this rule is not always clearly observed. Consider deviations that are not rare for the texts of normative acts:

1) polysemy - polysemy of a word.

For example, the word "organ" has many meanings, but in law it is used to refer to structures exercising state power. As a result, the legislator must ensure that normative act the term was used unambiguously. Many means can be used here: clarification, concretization, definition, etc.;

2) synonymy - interchangeability of words. Synonyms in a normative act can play a positive role: they help to clarify, detail the will of the legislator. In addition, synonyms enrich the language of the text, which is also important.

However, when using synonyms, you must remember: - you can not use quasi-synonyms, that is, words that are not semantic related; - inaccurate or shading synonyms should not be allowed; - unacceptable synonymous excess;

3) antinomy. We are talking about the use of mutually exclusive terms. In normative texts, this is used quite often (“plaintiff” - “respondent”, “right” - “duty”, etc.).

Here you should also: - observe symmetry in opposition; - do not oppose polysemantic words; - do not oppose words that are close in meaning.

A lot of terms are used in law-making work.

Usually they are classified by types: - well-known terms that reflect the processes taking place in society (“owners Vehicle”, “hired bunch”, “employer”, “family”, etc.); - special concepts that came from various areas of public life ("natural-anthropogenic object", "natural ecological system", "informatization", "information processes", etc.); -- specific legal concepts(“sanity”, “guilt”, “plaintiff”, “citizen”, “prejudice”, etc.).

These are the standard words that make up the normative text. However, there are non-standard lexical groups, the use of which in rule-making practice causes the greatest difficulties: - archaisms - names of objects, phenomena, for some reason crowded out by other words ("juror", "bailiff", "burden of proof", etc.) .

The following rule applies here: they should not be artificially forced out, since law is an element of culture, which is inherent in the continuity of its own traditions; - historicisms - the names of disappeared objects, phenomena (for example, "gendarme"). They reflect the process of return of these phenomena.

They should be taken for granted (if the phenomenon they reflect has been returned) and no attempt should be made to use synonyms from modern life: after all, they reflect historical facts; - dialectisms (provincialisms) - words with a limited scope of use, characteristic, as a rule, of any dialect (Northern Russian, Central Russian, South Russian). Since they are synonymous, they should not be relied upon as this does not contribute to the coherence of the legal system; - technicalisms - highly specialized names used in a particular activity ("developer", "endocarditis", etc.).

Their use should be limited until they become commonplace;

• - foreign words - words borrowed from other languages ​​used in the Russian lexicon. The process of borrowing words has recently been going on at a faster rate than before. The processes of globalization that are gaining momentum, which cannot be stopped, are having an effect. That's why it's important to follow following rules: do not abuse foreign vocabulary; apply foreign words adapted to Russian vocabulary; do not use them as synonyms for Russian words; in the normative text to give their translations or clarifications; monitor their compatibility with the words used in the text;
• - jargon - words that reflect the specifics of people united by a common interest (for example, "material evidence", "passenger traffic"). In principle, their use is undesirable, since they give the normative document a touch of vernacular. Legal language is a kind of literary language. But even in cases where the slang word adapts and begins to acquire a commonly used character, there is nothing reprehensible in its use (for example, "moonshine", "brothel", "pimping", "revenue").

Phrases imply a stable semantic connection between words. Compatibility of words is an advantage of a normative text, not a disadvantage. We can talk not only about labor productivity, but also about language productivity. Phrases (ready-made units of text) are one of the ways to increase it. Phrases are of the following types:

• - phraseological units, i.e., stable phrases. They are divided into general, non-legal and auxiliary (for example, registration number), as well as proper legal (necessary defense, detention, bringing to trial, appeal to the court);
• - free phrases. They are more flexible, their parts can be replaced (for example, " cash" -- "cash resources", " final provisions"-" the final section", "to be nominated for deputies" - "to run for deputies"). Only at first glance it seems that everything is simple: substitute ready-made phrases instead of words. However, in legal texts, exact and unambiguous reproduction of phrases is necessary. Therefore, phrases must be used in accordance with the following rules:
• - use only well-known phrases, otherwise the availability of the regulatory text will be in question;
• - avoid ambiguous phrases;
• - preserve figurativeness, otherwise their use loses its meaning;
• - do not combine phraseological units in one sentence;
• - explain them if necessary.

The origin of the vocabulary of the modern Russian language

The vocabulary of the modern Russian language has come a long way of development. Our vocabulary consists not only of native Russian words, but also of words borrowed from other languages. Foreign sources replenished and enriched the Russian language throughout the entire process of its historical development. Some borrowings were made in antiquity, others relatively recently.

Replenishment of Russian vocabulary went in two directions.

1. New words were created from word-forming elements (roots, suffixes, prefixes) available in the language. Thus, the original Russian vocabulary expanded and developed.
2. New words were poured into the Russian language from other languages ​​as a result of the economic, political and cultural ties of the Russian people with other peoples.

The composition of Russian vocabulary in terms of its origin can be schematically represented in the table.

Vocabulary of the modern Russian language

Original Russian vocabulary

The original Russian vocabulary is heterogeneous in origin: it consists of several layers, which differ in the time of their formation.

The most ancient among the original Russian words are Indo-Europeanisms - words that have survived from the era of Indo-European linguistic unity. According to scientists, in the V-IV millennium BC. e. there was an ancient Indo-European civilization that united tribes living on a rather vast territory. So, according to the studies of some linguists, it stretched from the Volga to the Yenisei, others believe that it was the Balkan-Danubian, or South Russian, localization1 Indo-European linguistic community gave rise to European and some Asian languages ​​(for example, Bengali, Sanskrit).

Words denoting plants, animals, metals and minerals, tools, forms of management, types of kinship, etc. go back to the Indo-European parent language: oak, salmon, goose, wolf, sheep, copper, bronze, honey, mother, son, daughter, night, moon, snow, water, new, sew, etc.

Another layer of native Russian vocabulary is made up of common Slavic words, inherited by our language from common Slavic (Proto-Slavic), which served as a source for all Slavic languages. This language-base existed in the prehistoric era on the territory between the Dnieper, Bug and Vistula rivers, inhabited by ancient Slavic tribes. By the VI-VII centuries. n. e. the common Slavic language fell apart, opening the way for the development of Slavic languages, including Old Russian. General Slavic words are easily distinguished in all Slavic languages, the common origin of which is obvious in our time.

There are a lot of nouns among common Slavic words. These are, first of all, concrete nouns: head, throat, beard, heart, palm; field, mountain, forest, birch, maple, ox, cow, pig; sickle, pitchfork, knife, seine, neighbor, guest, servant, friend; shepherd, spinner, potter. There are also abstract nouns, but there are fewer of them: faith, will, guilt, sin, happiness, glory, rage, thought.

From other parts of speech in the common Slavic vocabulary, verbs are presented: see, hear, grow, lie; adjectives: kind, young, old, wise, cunning; numerals: one, two, three; pronouns: I, you, we, you; pronominal adverbs: where, as well as some service parts of speech: over, a, and, yes, but, etc.

The common Slavic vocabulary has about two thousand words, however, this relatively small vocabulary is the core of the Russian dictionary, it includes the most common, stylistically neutral words used both in oral and written speech.

The Slavic languages, which had the ancient Proto-Slavic language as their source, separated themselves into three groups according to sound, grammatical and lexical features: southern, western and eastern.

The third layer of native Russian words consists of East Slavic (Old Russian) vocabulary, which developed on the basis of the language Eastern Slavs, one of the three groups of ancient Slavic languages. The East Slavic linguistic community developed by the 7th-9th centuries. n. e. on the territory of Eastern Europe. The tribal unions that lived here go back to the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian nationalities. Therefore, the words that have remained in our language from this period are known, as a rule, both in Ukrainian and in Belarusian, but are absent in the languages ​​of the Western and Southern Slavs.

As part of the East Slavic vocabulary, one can distinguish: 1) the names of animals, birds: dog, squirrel, jackdaw, drake, bullfinch; 2) names of tools: axe, blade; 3) names of household items: boots, ladle, chest, ruble; 4) names of people by profession: carpenter, cook, shoemaker, miller; 5) names of settlements: village, settlement and other lexical-semantic groups.

The fourth layer of primordially Russian words is the native Russian vocabulary, which was formed after the 14th century, i.e. in the era self-development Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian languages. These languages ​​already have their own equivalents for words belonging to the proper Russian vocabulary. Wed lexical units:

Actually Russian words are distinguished, as a rule, by a derivative basis: a mason, a leaflet, a locker room, a community, an intervention, etc.

It should be emphasized that in the composition of the Russian vocabulary itself there may also be words with foreign roots that have passed the path of Russian word formation and have acquired Russian suffixes, prefixes: partisanship, non-party, aggressiveness; ruler, glass, teapot; words with a complex stem: a radio station, a steam locomotive, as well as many complex abbreviated words that replenished our language in the 20th century: Moscow Art Theater, timber industry, wall newspaper, etc.

The original Russian vocabulary continues to be replenished with words that are created on the basis of the word-formation resources of the language, as a result of a wide variety of processes characteristic of Russian word formation.

See also the new theory of the ancestral home of the Indo-Europeans Gamkrelidze T.V., Ivanov V.V. Indo-European language and Indo-Europeans. Reconstruction and historical-typological analysis of proto-language and proto-culture. Tbilisi, 1984.

Borrowings from Slavic languages

A special place in the composition of Russian vocabulary among Slavic borrowings is occupied by Old Slavonic words, or Old Slavonicisms (Church Slavonicisms). These are the words of the most ancient Slavic language, well known in Russia since the spread of Christianity (988).

Being the language of liturgical books, Old Church Slavonic was at first far from colloquial speech, however, over time, he experiences a noticeable influence of the East Slavic language and, in turn, leaves an imprint on the language of the people. Russian chronicles reflect numerous cases of mixing of these related languages.

The influence of the Old Church Slavonic language was very fruitful, it enriched our language, made it more expressive and flexible. In particular, Old Slavic words began to be used in Russian vocabulary, denoting abstract concepts for which there were no names yet.

As part of the Old Slavonicisms that have replenished the Russian vocabulary, several groups can be distinguished: 1) words that go back to the common Slavic language, having East Slavic variants of a different sound or affixal design: gold, night, fisherman, boat; 2) Old Slavonicisms, which do not have consonant Russian words: finger, mouth, cheeks, persi (cf. Russian: finger, lips, cheeks, chest); 3) semantic Old Slavonicisms, that is, common Slavic words that received a new meaning in the Old Slavonic language associated with Christianity: god, sin, sacrifice, fornication.

Old Slavonic borrowings have characteristic phonetic, derivational and semantic features.

The phonetic features of Old Slavonicisms include:

• disagreement, i.e. combinations -ra-, -la-, -re-, -le- between consonants in place of full-vowel Russians -oro-, -olo-, -ere-, -ele, -elo- as part of one morpheme: brada - beard, youth - youth, a series - a series, a helmet - a helmet, a milk - milk,
• combinations of ra-, la- at the beginning of the word in place of Russian ro-, lorab, boat; cf. east slavic rob, boat,
• a combination of zhd in place of Russian w, ascending to a single common Slavic consonance: clothing, hope, between; cf. East Slavic: clothes, hope, between;
• consonant u in place of Russian h, also ascending to the same common Slavic consonance: night, daughter; cf. East Slavic: night, daughter,
• the vowel e at the beginning of the word in place of the Russian o deer, one, cf. East Slavic: deer, one;
• the vowel e under stress before a hard consonant in place of the Russian o (e): cross, sky; cf. godfather, palate.

Other Old Church Slavonicisms retain Old Slavonic prefixes, suffixes, a complex stem characteristic of Old Church Slavonic word formation:

• prefixes voz-, from-, bottom-, through-, pre-, pre-: sing, exile, send down, extraordinary, transgress, predict;
• suffixes -stvi(e), -eni(e), -ani(e), -zn, -tv(a), -h(s), -ush-, -yush-, -ash-, -yash-: advent, prayer, torment, execution, prayer, helmsman, leading, knowing, screaming, smashing;
• complex foundations with elements typical of Old Slavonicism: God-fearing, good-naturedness, malevolence, superstition, gluttony.

It is also possible to classify Old Slavonicisms based on their semantic and stylistic differences from Russian words.

1. Most Old Church Slavonicisms stand out book coloring, solemn, upbeat sound, youth, breg, hand, sing, sacred, imperishable, omnipresent, etc.
2. Those that do not stand out stylistically from the rest of the vocabulary (many of them replaced the corresponding East Slavic variants by duplicating their meaning) sharply differ from such Old Slavonicisms: helmet, sweet, work, moisture; cf. obsolete Old Russian: shelom, licorice, vologa.
3. A special group is made up of Old Slavonicisms, used along with Russian variants that have received a different meaning in the language: dust - gunpowder, betray - transfer, head (of government) - head, citizen - city dweller, etc.

The Old Church Slavonicisms of the second and third groups are not perceived by the speakers of the modern Russian language as alien - they have become so Russified that they practically do not differ from native Russian words. Unlike such, genetic, Old Slavonicisms, the words of the first group retain their connection with the Old Slavonic, bookish language; many of them in the last century were an integral part of the poetic vocabulary: Persian, cheeks, mouth, sweet, voice, hair, golden, young, etc. Now they are perceived as poeticisms, and G.O. Vinokur called them stylistic Slavisms1

From other closely related Slavic languages, separate words came to the Russian language, which practically do not stand out among the original Russian vocabulary. From the Ukrainian and Belarusian languages, the names of household items were borrowed, for example, Ukrainianisms: borscht, dumplings, dumplings, hopak. A lot of words came to us from the Polish language: town, monogram, harness, zrazy, gentry. Through Polish language Czech and other Slavic words were borrowed: ensign, arrogant, angle, etc.

1 See. Vinokur G.O. On Slavicisms in the Modern Russian Literary Language // Selected Works in the Russian Language, Moscow, 1959. P. 443.

Borrowings from non-Slavic languages

The history of our people was reflected in the borrowing of foreign words by the Russian language in different eras. Economic, political, cultural contacts with other countries, military clashes left their mark on the development of the language.

The very first borrowings from non-Slavic languages ​​penetrated into the Russian language as early as the 8th-12th centuries. From the Scandinavian languages ​​(Swedish, Norwegian) came to us words related to sea fishing: skerry, anchor, hook, hook, proper names: Rurik, Oleg, Olga, Igor, Askold. In the official business speech of Ancient Russia, the now obsolete words vira, tiun, sneak, brand were used. From the Finno-Ugric languages, we borrowed the names of fish: whitefish, navaga, salmon, herring, shark, smelt, herring, as well as some words associated with the life of northern peoples: sleigh, tundra, snowstorm, sledges, dumplings, etc.

Among the ancient borrowings are some words from Germanic languages: armor, sword, shell, cauldron, hill, beech, prince, boron, pig, camel and others. Scientists argue about the origin of some words, so the number of borrowings from the ancient Germanic languages ​​seems ambiguous to different researchers (from 20 to 200 words).

The close proximity of the Turkic peoples (Polovtsy, Pechenegs, Khazars), military clashes with them, and then the Mongol-Tatar invasion were left in the Russian language Turkic words. They relate mainly to the nomadic life of these peoples, clothing, utensils: quiver, lasso, pack, hut, beshmet, sash, heel, pouch, kumach, chest, flail, shackles, bondage, treasury, guard, etc.

The most significant influence on the language of Ancient Russia was the influence of the Greek language. Kievan Rus conducted a lively trade with Byzantium, and the penetration of Greek elements into Russian vocabulary began even before the adoption of Christianity in Russia (VI century) and intensified under the influence of Christian culture in connection with the baptism of the Eastern Slavs (IX century), the distribution of liturgical books translated from Greek language into Old Church Slavonic.

Greek in origin are many names of household items, vegetables, fruits: cherry, cucumber, doll, ribbon, tub, beet, lantern, bench, bath; words related to science, education: grammar, mathematics, history, philosophy, notebook, alphabet, dialect; borrowings from the field of religion: angel, altar, pulpit, anathema, archimandrite, antichrist, archbishop, demon, oil, gospel, icon, incense, cell, schema, icon lamp, monk, monastery, sexton, archpriest, memorial service, etc.

Later borrowings from the Greek language refer exclusively to the sphere of sciences and arts. Many Greekisms came to us through other European languages ​​and are widely used in scientific terminology that has received universal recognition: logic, psychology, pulpit, idyll, idea, climate, criticism, metal, museum, magnet, syntax, lexicon, comedy, tragedy, chronograph, planet, stage, stage, theater and so on.

The Latin language also played a significant role in the enrichment of Russian vocabulary (including terminology), associated mainly with the sphere of scientific, technical and socio-political life. The words ascend to the Latin source: author, administrator, audience, student, exam, external, minister, justice, operation, censorship, dictatorship, republic, deputy, delegate, rector, excursion, expedition, revolution, constitution, etc. These Latinisms came to our language, as well as to other European languages, not only through direct contact of the Latin language with any other (which, of course, was not excluded, especially through various educational institutions), but also through other languages. Latin in many European states was the language of literature, science, official papers and religion (Catholicism). Scientific writings up to the XVIII century. often written in Latin; medicine still uses Latin. All this contributed to the creation of an international fund of scientific terminology, which was mastered by many European languages, including Russian.

In our time, scientific terms are often created from Greek and Latin roots, denoting concepts unknown in the era of antiquity: astronaut [gr. kos-mos - Universe + gr. nautes - (sea) - swimmer]; futurology (lat. futurum - future + gr. logos - word, doctrine); scuba gear (Latin aqua - water + English lung - light). This is due to the exceptional productivity of Latin and Greek roots included in various scientific terms, as well as their international character, which facilitates the understanding of such foundations in different languages.

Later lexical influence European languages into Russian began to be felt in the 16th-17th centuries. and especially intensified in the Petrine era, in the XVIII century. The transformation of all aspects of Russian life under Peter I, his administrative and military reforms, the success of education, the development of science - all this contributed to the enrichment of Russian vocabulary with foreign words. These were numerous names of then new household items, military and naval terms, words from the field of science and art.

The following words were borrowed from the German language: sandwich, tie, decanter, hat, office, package, price list, percentage, accountant, bill, share, agent, camp, headquarters, commander, junker, corporal, gun carriage, bandoleer, workbench, jointer, nickel, quartz, saltpeter, wolfral, potatoes, onions.

Maritime terms came from the Dutch language: shipyard, harbor, pennant, berth, drift, pilot, sailor, raid, yard, rudder, fleet, flag, fairway, skipper, navigator, boat, ballast.

Maritime terms were also borrowed from English: boat, brig, barge, schooner, yacht, midshipman. Influence of English language turned out to be relatively stable: words penetrated into the Russian language from it throughout the 19th century. and later. So, words from the sphere ascend to this source. public relations, technical and sports terms, names of household items: leader, department, rally, boycott, parliament, station, elevator, dock, budget, square, cottage, trolleybus, rail, mac, beefsteak, pudding, rum, whiskey, grog, cake, plaid, sweater, jacket, jacket, finish, sports, athlete, football, basketball, volleyball, boxing, croquet, poker, hockey, jockey, bridge, spinning, etc.

The French language left a significant mark in Russian vocabulary. The first Gallicisms penetrated into it in the Petrine era, and then, in late XVIII – early XIX c., in connection with gallomania secular society borrowings from French became especially popular. Among them are everyday words: suit, hood, corset, corsage, jacket, vest, coat, coat, blouse, tailcoat, bracelet, veil, jabot, floor, furniture, chest of drawers, study, sideboard, salon, toilet, dressing table, chandelier , lampshade, curtain, service, footman, broth, cutlet, cream, stew, dessert, marmalade, ice cream, etc.; military terms: vanguard, captain, sergeant, artillery, march, arena, cavalry, redoubt, attack, breach, battalion, salute, garrison, courier, general, lieutenant, dugout, recruit, sapper, cornet corps, landing force, fleet, squadron.

Many words from the field of art also date back to the French language: mezzanine, parterre, play, actor, prompter, director, intermission, foyer, plot, role, stage, repertoire, farce, ballet, genre, role, stage. All these words became the property of our language, therefore, there was a borrowing not only of names, but also of concepts necessary for the enrichment of Russian culture. Some French borrowings, reflecting the narrow circle of interests of an exquisite noble society, did not take root on Russian soil and fell into disuse: rendezvous, pleisir, politeness, and so on.

Through the French language, some Italian words: baroque, carbonarium, dome, mezzanine, mosaic, cavalier, pantaloons, gasoline, arch, barricade, watercolor, credit, corridor, bastion, carnival, arsenal, bandit, balcony, charlatan, basta, balustrade, etc.

Musical terms came from Italian to all European languages, including Russian: adagio, arioso, aria, viola, bass, cello, bandura, cappella, tenor, cavatina, canzone, mandolin, libretto, forte, piano, moderato, etc. The words harpsichord, ballerina, harlequin, opera, impresario, bravo also go back to the Italian source.

There are single borrowings from Spanish, which often penetrated into Russian through French: alcove, guitar, castanets, mantilla, serenade, caramel, vanilla, tobacco, tomato, cigar, lemon, jasmine, banana.

Among foreign borrowings, one should include not only individual words, but also some word-forming elements: Greek prefixes a-, anti-, arches-, pan-: immoral, anti-perestroika, arch-absurd, pan-German; Latin prefixes: de-, counter-, trans-, ultra-, inter-. degradation, counterplay, trans-European, ultra-left, intervocalic; Latin suffixes: -ism, -ist, -or, -tor, etc. tailism, harmonist, combinator. Such prefixes and suffixes have become entrenched not only in the Russian language, they have become internationally widespread.

It should be noted that Russian words are also borrowed by other languages. And in different periods In our history, not only such Russian words as samovar, borscht, cabbage soup, cranberry, etc. penetrated into other languages, but such as satellite, soviets, perestroika, glasnost. The successes of the Soviet Union in space exploration contributed to the fact that the terms of this sphere born in our language were perceived by other languages. astronaut, lunar rover.

Mastering borrowed words in Russian

Foreign words, getting into our language, are gradually assimilated by it: they adapt to the sound system of the Russian language, obey the rules of Russian word formation and inflection, thus losing, to one degree or another, the features of their non-Russian origin.

First of all, foreign-language features of the sound design of a word are usually eliminated, for example, nasal sounds in borrowings from French or combinations of sounds characteristic of the English language, etc. Then, non-Russian word endings and gender forms change. For example, in the words postman, prompter, pavement, sounds characteristic of the French language (nasal vowels, traced [r]) no longer sound; in the words rally, pudding there is no English back-lingual n, pronounced with the back of the back of the tongue (in transcription [*ng], in addition, the first of them has lost the diphthong; the initial consonants in the words jazz, gin are pronounced with a characteristic Russian articulation, although their combination is for us The Latin word seminarium became a seminary and then a seminary, the Greek analogos became an'alogue, and analogikos a similar one. Greek the meaning of the plural, in Russian began to be perceived as a singular noun, and not the middle, but the feminine: beetroot. The German marschierep receives the Russian suffix -ovat and is converted to march.

Acquiring word-building affixes, borrowed words are included in the grammatical system of the Russian language and obey the relevant norms of inflection: they form paradigms of declensions and conjugations.

Mastering borrowed words usually leads to their semantic changes. Most of the foreign words in the Russian language lose their etymological connections with the related roots of the source language. So, we do not perceive the German words resort, sandwich, hairdresser as words of a complex basis (resort from kurie-rep - “treat” + Ort - “place”; hairdresser - literally “making a wig”; sandwich - “butter” and “bread” )

As a result of deetymologization, the meanings of foreign words become unmotivated.

However, not all borrowings are assimilated by the Russian language to the same extent: there are those that have become so Russified that they do not reveal their foreign origin (cherry, notebook, party, hut, soup, cutlet), while others retain certain features of the original language, thanks to which they stand out in Russian vocabulary as alien words.

Among the borrowings there are words not mastered by the Russian language, which stand out sharply against the background of Russian vocabulary. A special place among such borrowings is occupied by exoticisms - words that characterize specific features the lives of different peoples and are used in describing non-Russian reality. So, when depicting the life of the peoples of the Caucasus, the words aul, saklya, dzhigit, arba, etc. are used. Exoticisms do not have Russian synonyms, therefore, referring to them when describing national specifics is dictated by necessity.

Barbarisms are allocated to another group, i.e. foreign words transferred to Russian soil, the use of which is individual character. Unlike other lexical borrowings, barbarisms are not recorded in dictionaries of foreign words, and even more so in dictionaries of the Russian language. Barbarisms are not mastered by the language, although over time they can gain a foothold in it. Thus, almost all borrowings, before entering the permanent vocabulary, were barbarisms for some time. For example, V. Mayakovsky used the word camp as barbarism (I am lying, - a tent in a camp), later the borrowing camping became the property of the Russian language.

Foreign-language inclusions in Russian vocabulary adjoin barbarisms: ok, merci, happy end, pater familias. Many of them retain non-Russian spelling, they are popular not only in ours, but also in other languages. In addition, the use of some of them has a long tradition, like alma mater.

Phonetic and morphological features of loanwords

Among the phonetic signs of borrowed words, the following can be distinguished.

1. Unlike primordially Russian words, which never began with the sound [a] (which would contradict phonetic laws Russian language), borrowed words have an initial a: profile, abbot, paragraph, aria, attack, lampshade, arba, angel, anathema.
2. The initial e is distinguished mainly by Greekisms and Latinisms (Russian words never begin with this non-quoted sound): epoch, era, ethics, exam, execution, effect, floor.
3. The letter f testifies to the non-Russian source of the word, since the Eastern Slavs did not have the sound [f] and the corresponding graphic sign was used only to designate it in borrowed words: forum, fact, lantern, sofa, film, scam, form, aphorism, ether, profile and under.
4. The combination of two or more vowels in a word was unacceptable according to the laws of Russian phonetics, so borrowed words are easily distinguished by this feature (the so-called gaping): poet, halo, out, theater, veil, cocoa, radio, punctuation.
5. The consonances ge, ke, heh, which underwent phonetic changes in the original words, turned out to be possible in the borrowed words: cedar, hero, scheme, agent, ascetic.
6. The sequence of vowels and consonants, which is not characteristic of the Russian language, highlights borrowings in which the unfamiliar consonances of parachute, puree, communique, jeep, jury are transmitted by means of the Russian phonetic system.
7. A special phonetic feature of words of Turkic origin is vowel harmony (vowel harmonism) - the regular use of only one row of vowels in one word: back [a], [y] or front [e], [i]: ataman, caravan, pencil, shoe, lasso , chest, sundress, drum, heel, sash, ulus, mosque, beads.

Among the morphological features of borrowed words, the most characteristic is their immutability, the absence of inflections. So, some foreign language nouns do not change by case, do not have correlative singular and plural forms: taxi, coffee, coat, beige, mini, maxi.

The word-building signs of borrowings include foreign prefixes: interval, deduction, individualism, regression, archimandrite, rear-admiral, antichrist and suffixes: dean's office, student, technical school, editor, literature, proletariat, populism, socialist, polemize, etc.

Tracing

One of the methods of borrowing is tracing, i.e., building lexical units on the model of the corresponding words of a foreign language by accurately translating them meaningful parts or borrowing individual meanings of words. Accordingly, lexical and semantic tracing papers are distinguished

Lexical calques arise as a result of a literal translation into Russian of a foreign word in parts: a prefix, a root, a suffix with an exact repetition of the method of its formation and meaning. For example, the Russian word look is formed according to the German model aussehen as a result of tracing the prefix you = German aus-; verb stem – to look = German sehen. The words hydrogen and oxygen are tracing papers of the Greek hudor - "water" + genos - "kind" and oxys - "sour" + genos - "kind"; likewise the German Halbinsel served as the model for the peninsula tracing paper; the English sky-scraper in Russian has a tracing-paper skyscraper (cf. Ukrainian hmaroches). The following borrowings came to us through tracing: biography (gr. bios + grapho), superman (German über + Mensch); welfare (fr. bien+ktre), spelling (gr. orthos+grapho) and many others. Such tracing papers are also called derivational, more precisely lexical and derivational.

Semantic tracing papers are primordial words that, in addition to their inherent in Russian lexical system meanings, get new meanings under the influence of another language. For example, the Russian word picture, which means “work of painting”, “spectacle”, under the influence of the English language, was also used in the meaning of “film”. This is a tracing paper of the English polysemantic word picture, which has the following meanings in the source language: “picture”, “drawing”, “portrait”, “movie”, “shooting frame”.

Many semantic cripples from the French language were introduced by N. M. Karamzin: touch, touching, taste, refined, image, etc. Appeal to them at the beginning of the 19th century. It was hallmark"new style", developed by the Karamzin school and approved by Pushkin and his associates.

Lexical-derivative calquing was used when replenishing the Russian lexicon from Greek, Latin, German, French sources.

Another kind of borrowings are lexical half-calques - words that combine word-for-word translated foreign and Russian word-building elements. For example, the word humanity has the Latin root human-us, but the Russian suffix -ost is added to it (cf. humanism), or the Greek (tele) and Russian (vision-e) bases are combined in the compound word television.

Relation to borrowed words

In relation to borrowed words, two extremes often collide: on the one hand, a glut of speech with foreign words and phrases, on the other hand, their denial, the desire to use only the original word. At the same time, in polemics, they often forget that many borrowings have become completely Russified and have no equivalents, being the only names for the corresponding realities (remember Pushkin's: But pantaloons, tailcoat, vest - all these words are not in Russian ...). Absence scientific approach to the problem of mastering foreign language vocabulary is also manifested in the fact that its use is sometimes considered in isolation from the functional and stylistic consolidation of language means: it is not taken into account that in some cases the appeal to foreign book words is not stylistically justified, and in others it is necessary, since these words are an integral part of the vocabulary assigned to a particular style serving a particular area of ​​communication.

In different periods of the development of the Russian literary language, the assessment of the penetration of foreign language elements into it was ambiguous. In addition, with the activation of the process of lexical borrowing, the opposition to it usually intensifies. So, Peter I demanded from his contemporaries to write "as intelligibly as possible", without abusing non-Russian words. M.V. Lomonosov in his "theory of three calms", highlighting the words of various groups in the Russian vocabulary, did not leave room for borrowings from non-Slavic languages. And creating Russian scientific terminology, Lomonosov consistently sought to find equivalents in the language to replace foreign terms, sometimes artificially transferring such formations into the language of science. Both A.P. Sumarokov and N.I. Novikov opposed the clogging of the Russian language with French words that were fashionable at that time.

However, in the XIX century. the emphasis has shifted. Representatives of the Karamzin school, young poets led by Pushkin, had to fight for the use of lexical borrowings on Russian soil, since they reflected the advanced ideas of the French Enlightenment. It is no coincidence that tsarist censorship eradicated from the language such borrowed words as revolution, progress.

In the first years of Soviet power, the most urgent cultural and educational task was to familiarize the broad masses of the people with knowledge, to eliminate illiteracy. Under these conditions, prominent writers and public figures put forward the demand for the simplicity of the literary language.

In our time, the question of the advisability of using borrowing is associated with the consolidation lexical means for certain functional styles speech. The use of foreign words that have a limited scope of distribution can be justified by the circle of readers, the stylistic affiliation of the work. Foreign terminological vocabulary is an indispensable means of concise and accurate transmission of information in texts intended for narrow specialists, but it can also be an insurmountable barrier to the understanding of a popular science text by an unprepared reader.

It is necessary to take into account the emerging in our century scientific and technological progress a tendency to create international terminology, common names for concepts, phenomena of modern science, production, which also contributes to the consolidation of borrowed words that have acquired an international character.

Questions for self-examination

1. What explains the replenishment of Russian vocabulary with foreign words?
2. What are the ways of penetration of lexical borrowings into the Russian language?
3. What lexical layers are distinguished in the Russian language depending on the origin of words?
4. What place do Old Slavonic words occupy in Russian vocabulary?
5. How are foreign words mastered by the Russian language?
6. By what phonetic and morphological signs can borrowed words be distinguished from the composition of the Russian vocabulary?
7. What are calques?
8. What types of cripples in Russian do you know?
9. What are the criteria for the use of foreign words in speech?

Exercises

24. Analyze the composition of the vocabulary in the text in terms of its origin. Highlight foreign words, noting the degree of their assimilation by the Russian language. Specify Old Slavonicisms. For information please contact etymological dictionaries and dictionaries of foreign words.

The southern facade of the Saltykovs' house faces the Field of Mars. Before the revolution, the present growing park was a huge square where parades of the troops of the Guards Corps took place. Behind it was the gloomy Engineering Castle with its gilded spire. Now the building is covered with old trees. In Pushkin's time they were only ten or three years old.

The façade of the embassy's mansion had not yet been damaged by the later addition of the fourth floor.

Eight windows of the ambassador's former apartment overlook the Champ de Mars, one of which is blocked; the extreme windows on the right and left are triple. In the middle of the floor, a glass door leads to a balcony, designed in strict proportions of the Alexander Empire style. Its massive cast-iron grate is very beautiful. The balcony was probably erected in 1819 at the same time as the entire third floor from the side of the Champ de Mars. ... Arriving in Leningrad, I asked permission to inspect southern part third floor of the Institute of Culture.

Now here, basically, his library is placed. Book wealth (currently more than three hundred thousand volumes) is already cramped in the enfilade former rooms Countess Dolly...

The five apartments overlooking the Champ de Mars are bright and invariably warm rooms. And in the most severe frosts it is never fresh here. The Countess's favorite camellias and her other flowers probably did well in these rooms even in the cloudy St. Petersburg winters. Darya Fyodorovna was also comfortable there, who, as we know, in some respects herself resembled a hothouse flower.

In real terms, the countess, having lived for many years in Italy, at least in the first years after her arrival in St. Petersburg, she could hardly endure domestic frosts. The very arrival of the northern winter oppressed her.

Having settled in the Saltykovs’ house, she writes down on October 1 of the same 1829: “Today the first snow fell - the winter, which will last for seven months with us, made my heart shrink: the influence of the north must be very strong on the mood of a person, because among such a happy existence like mine, I have to struggle with my sadness and melancholy all the time. I reproach myself for this, but I can’t do anything about it - beautiful Italy is to blame for this, joyful, sparkling, warm, which turned my first youth into a picture full of flowers, comfort and harmony. She has thrown, as it were, a veil over the rest of my life, which will pass outside of her! Few people would understand me in this regard - but only a person brought up and developed in the south truly feels what life is and knows all its charm.

There are no words, the young ambassador, like a few, knew how to feel and love life. I only felt it - let's repeat - one-sidedly. So it was before, in Italy, and in the red living room of the Saltykovsky house, where, probably, she filled out the pages of her diary ... But it is difficult to walk through her former private rooms without excitement. Probably, they are no less than the front apartments of the embassy, ​​they were what has long been called the “salon of the Countess Ficquelmont”, where, according to P.A. Vyazemsky, "both the diplomats and Pushkin were at home."

(N. Raevsky.)

25. In sentences from the works of A. S. Pushkin, highlight Old Slavonicisms. Specify them stylistic functions, name, where possible, Russian correspondences.

1. Leaning on an alien plow, submitting to scourges, here lean slavery drags along the reins of an inexorable owner. Here everyone drags a heavy yoke to the grave, not daring to feed hopes and inclinations in the soul, here young virgins bloom for the whim of an insensitive villain. 2. Fear, O army of foreigners! Russia's sons moved; both old and young arose; they fly at the bold, their hearts are kindled with vengeance. 3. I love rabid youth ... 4. ... There, under the shadow of the wings, my young days rushed by. 5. Listen to my sad voice ... 6. I did not want to kiss the lips of the young Armides with such torment, or roses of fiery cheeks, or Persians full of languor ... 7. It's time to leave the boring shore ... 8. ... Fields ! I am devoted to you in soul. 9. But thank God! you are alive, unharmed... 10. Hello, young, unfamiliar tribe! 11. And I always considered you a faithful, brave knight... 12. I opened granaries for them, I scattered gold for them, I found work for them... 13. Neither power nor life amuse me... 14. Then - is not it? - in the desert, far from the vain rumors, you did not like me ... 15. I listened and listened - involuntary and sweet tears flowed.

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Introduction

Chapter 1. The word as a unit of the diversity of the Russian language

Chapter 2

2.1 Homonyms in Russian

2.2 Synonyms

2.3 Antonyms

2.4 Paronyms

Chapter 3

3.1 Obsolete words

3.2 Common vocabulary and limited scope use

3.3 Dialectisms

3.4 Terminological and professional vocabulary

3.5 Slang and slang vocabulary

Chapter 4 Lexical errors In russian language

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

The modern Russian language is the national language of the Russian people, a form of Russian national culture. It is a historically established linguistic community and unites the entire set of linguistic means of the Russian people, including all Russian dialects and dialects, as well as various jargons. The highest form of the national Russian language is the Russian literary language, which has a number of features that distinguish it from other forms of existence of the language: processing, normalization, the breadth of social functioning, universal obligation for all members of the team, a variety of speech styles used in various spheres of society.

The modern Russian language is a literary language, the language of science, press, radio, cinema - its meaning and use of words, pronunciation and spelling, the formation of grammatical forms obey the generally accepted pattern.

The Russian language has two forms - oral and written, which are characterized by features both in terms of lexical composition and grammatical structure, since they are designed for different types perception - auditory and visual. The written language differs from the oral one in the greater complexity of syntax, the predominance of abstract vocabulary, as well as terminological vocabulary, mainly international in its use.

Term vocabulary (gr. lexikos - verbal, dictionary) serves to designate the vocabulary of the language. This term is also used in narrower meanings 6 to determine the totality of words used in a particular functional variety language ( book vocabulary).

The synchronous study of vocabulary involves the study of it as a system of interrelated and interdependent elements at the present time.

However, the synchronous system of language is not fixed and absolutely stable. there are always elements in it that go into the past; there are just emerging, new ones. The existence of such heterogeneous elements in one synchronic section of the language testifies to its in constant motion and development The task of lexicology includes the study of the meanings of words, their stylistic characteristics, the description of the sources of the formation of the lexical system, the analysis of the processes of its renewal and archazation.

The vocabulary of the Russian language, like any other, is not a simple set of words, but a system of interconnected and interdependent units of the same level. The study of the lexical system of a language reveals an interesting and many-sided picture of words related to each other by various relationships and representing the "molecules" of a large, complex whole - the lexical and phraseological system of the language.

Not a single word in the Russian language exists separately, isolated from its general unified system. Words are combined into various groups based on certain causes and signs.

Lexicology establishes a wide variety of relationships within the various lexical groups that make up the nominative system of the language.

The lexical system singles out groups of words connected by a common or opposite meaning; similar or opposed in stylistic properties; united common type of word formation; connected by a common origin, features of functioning in speech, belonging to an active or passive vocabulary

The systemic connections of words, the interaction of different meanings of one word and its relationship with other words are very diverse, which indicates a large and expressive system of vocabulary, which is integral part larger language system

General language system and lexical norm as its component, is revealed and recognized in speech practice, has an impact on changes in the language, contributes to its development and enrichment. Learning vocabulary is necessary norm for the perception of the vocabulary of the Russian language, which is necessary for the development of literary and linguistic forms in artistic speech.

Chapter 1. The word as a unit of the diversity of the Russian language

The word in Russian is the most important nominee of the language system. The idea of ​​a word as the main unit of naming a phenomenon really develops directly in the speech practice of people. However, it is more difficult to give a scientific definition of a word, since words are diverse in terms of structural, grammatical and semantic features.

Word called a linguistic unit that has in its original norm only one main stress (if it is not unstressed) and has some meaning. The most important features of a word, which distinguish it from other linguistic units, are lexical and grammatical relatedness, semantic unity, a unit of grammatical wholeness of naming.

Consider the norms of differential features characteristic of most lexical units:

- Every word has a phonetic (in oral form) and graphic (in writing) design

Words have a certain meaning. The sound design of a word is the external material side, which is a form. Its meaning is the inside meaning the content. Form and content are inextricably linked: a word cannot be perceived if we do not pronounce it or write it, and cannot be understood if the pronounced combinations of sounds are devoid of meaning

- Words characterize the constancy of sound and meaning. No one has the right to change the phonetic shell of a word and give it an unusual meaning, because the form and content of the word are fixed in the language.

- Words (unlike phrases) are impenetrable: any word acts as an integral unit, inside which it is impossible to insert another word, especially several words. Exceptions are negative pronouns, which can be separated by prepositions (no one, no one, no one)

- Words have only one main stress, and some may be unstressed (prepositions, conjunctions, particles, etc.). However, there are no words that would have two main stresses. The non-double stress of a word distinguishes it from a stable (phraseological) combination that has a holistic meaning.

An important feature of words is their lexical and grammatical relatedness; they all belong to one or another part of speech and have a certain grammatical structure. So, nouns, adjectives and other names are characterized by forms of gender, number, case; verbs - forms of mood, type, tense, person, etc. These words perform various syntactic functions in the sentence, which creates their syntactic independence.

- Integrity and uniformity distinguish words from phrases. Compound words like fresh frozen, radio show, flirtatious grammatical feature expresses only one ending.

- All words characterize reproducibility: we do not construct them anew each time, but reproduce them in speech in the form in which they are known to all native speakers. This distinguishes words from phrases at the moment of utterance.

- Words are distinguished by their predominant use in conjunction with other words: in the process of communication, we build phrases from words, and from them - sentences

- One of the signs of the norm of the word is isolation. Words can also be perceived outside the speech stream, in isolation, retaining their inherent meaning.

The word is inherent in nominativeness - the ability to name objects, qualities, actions. True, service parts of speech, interjections, modal words, and pronouns do not have this feature, since they have a completely different specificity. The pronoun, for example, indicates objects, qualities, quantity, and interjections express the feelings and experiences of the speaker without naming them.

Lexical meaning word is called the correlation of the sound complex of a linguistic unit fixed in the minds of speakers with one or another phenomenon of reality. Words name not only specific objects that can be seen, heard, touched, but also concepts about these objects that arise in our minds.

The concept is a reflection in the minds of people of the general norms for expressing reality and their properties. Such features may be the shape of an object, its function, color, size, similarity or difference with another object. The concept is the result of a generalization of the mass of single phenomena, during which a person focuses on the main features. Without the ability of the word to name the concept, there would be no language itself. The designation of concepts in words allows us to get by with a relatively small number of linguistic signs. So, in order to single out one person from a multitude, or to name any of the multitude, we use the word human. To denote all the richness and variety of colors of wildlife, there are words red, yellow, blue, green, etc. Moving in space various items expressed by the word goes (man, train, bus, as well as ice, rain, snow).

A complex lexical system appears in all its diversity and complexity and in individual concepts of words. So, for example, the word island does not indicate to us a certain geographical position, name, form, fauna, flora, but appears to us as simply a piece of land surrounded by water. Thus, those essential norms for describing objects are fixed in words, which make it possible to distinguish a whole class of some objects from others.

However, not all words name any concept. They are not able to express unions, particles, prepositions, interjections, pronouns, proper names.

There are proper names that name single concepts. These are the names of prominent people ( Shakespeare, Dante, Chaliapin), geographical names (Volga, Baikal, Alps, America) By their nature, they cannot be a generalization and evoke the idea of ​​objects that are one of a kind.

personal names of people (Alexander, Vladimir), surnames (Petrov, Ivanov, Sidorov), on the contrary, do not give rise in our minds to a certain idea of ​​a particular person.

Common nouns (historian, engineer, son-in-law, son) according to various signs of professions, degrees of kinship make it possible to form some small idea about these people.

grammatical the meaning of a word is the general meaning of words as parts of speech (for example, the meaning of objectivity in nouns), the meaning of a particular time, person, number. Kind.

Lexical and grammatical values ​​are closely related. A change in the lexical meaning of a word leads to a change in the grammatical one. For example: voiceless consonant (relative adjective) and voiceless voice (qualitative adjective) has a degree of comparison, short form, gostiny dvor and living room, adjective and noun

own names, geographical concepts, common nouns can also be attributed to unambiguous words.

Unambiguous in Russian, words are called that have only one lexical meaning, they can also be called monosemantic. The ability of words to appear in only one meaning is called the unambiguity of a word, or monosemy.

There are several types of unambiguous words:

Proper names: Ivan, Vladimir, Moscow, Vladivostok. Their limiting value excludes the possibility of variation, since these words are single names.

Recently emerged words that have not yet received distribution: briefing, pizzeria. For the development of their ambiguity, their frequent use in speech is necessary, and new words cannot immediately receive universal recognition and distribution.

Words with a narrowly specific meaning of special use, which are used relatively rarely in speech

Terminological names gastritis, myoma.

Most Russian words have not one, but several meanings. They're called ambiguous or polysemantic and are opposed to single-valued words. The ability of lexical units to have several meanings is called polysemy or polysemy. The ambiguity of a word is usually realized in speech as a complete, in a semantic sense, segment of speech that clarifies one of the specific meanings of the ambiguity of a word.

Usually even the narrowest context is enough to clarify the shades of the meanings of polysemantic words. quiet (quiet) voice, quiet (calm) disposition, quiet (slow) ride, quiet (calm) weather, quiet (smooth) breathing. Here the minimum context is the word quiet allows you to delimit values.

Different meanings of a word, as a rule, are interconnected and form a complex semantic unity, which is called semantic structure the words. The connection of the meanings of a polysemantic word most clearly reflects the systemic nature of the language and, in particular, vocabulary.

Among the meanings inherent in polysemantic words, one is perceived as the main, main, and others - as derivatives of this main, original meaning. The main meaning is always indicated first in the explanatory dictionaries, followed by the numbers of derived meanings. For example, only the word go there are up to forty values: Go where your free mind takes you; I had to walk across the field for a long time; Is it again going to war against Russia; Letter goes a week; The clock goes forward; There are some gossips and talks about you; Steam comes out of the kettle; It is raining outside the window; There are trades on the stock exchange; Red suits your hair.

It would be a lexical error to assume that the development of the meanings of words is caused only by extralinguistic factors. Multilingualism is also determined purely linguistically: words can also be used in figurative meanings. Names can be transferred from one object to another if these objects have common features. Indeed, the lexical meaning of words does not reflect all the differential features of the named object, but only those that attracted attention at the time of nomination. Thus, many objects have common connections that can serve as the basis for the associative convergence of these objects and the transfer of the name from another.

The word acquires ambiguity in the process of the historical development of the language, reflecting changes in society and nature, as a person learns it. as a result, our thinking is enriched with new concepts. The volume of the dictionary of any language is limited, therefore the development of vocabulary occurs not only due to the creation of new words, but also as a result of an increase in the number of meanings of previously known ones, the death of some meanings and the emergence of new ones. This leads not only to quantitative, but also to qualitative changes in the Russian language.

Chapter 2. Ttypes of words in Russian,understanding of lexical norms and their rulesuses

Depending on on what basis and on what basis the name of one object is assigned to another, there are three types of polysemy of words: metaphor, metonymy and synecdoche.

Metaphor(gr. metaphor- transfer) is the transfer of a name from one object to another based on some similarity of their features.

The similarity of objects that receive the same name can manifest itself in different ways: they can be similar in shape ( ring 1 on the hand - a ring 2 smoke); by color ( gold 1 medallion - gold 2 curls); by function ( fireplace 1 - "room oven" and fireplace 2 - "electrical appliance for heating the room"). The similarity in the location of two objects in relation to something ( tail 1 animal - tail 2 comets), in their estimate ( clear 1 day - clear 2 style), in the impression they make ( black 1 bedspread - black 2 thoughts) also often serves as the basis for naming in one word different phenomena. There are other similarities as well: green 1 strawberries - green 2 youth(the unifying feature is "immaturity"); quick 1 running - fast 2 mind (common feature- "intensity"); stretch 1 mountains are stretching 2 days(associative connection - "length in time and space"). Metaphorization of meanings often occurs as a result of the transfer of qualities, properties, actions of inanimate objects to animate ones: iron nerves, golden hands, an empty head, and vice versa: gentle rays, the roar of a waterfall, the voice of a stream. It often happens that the main, original meaning of the word is metaphorically rethought on the basis of the convergence of objects according to different features: gray-haired 1 old man - gray-haired 2 antiquity - gray 3 fog; black 1 bedspread - black 2 thoughts are black 3 ingratitude is black 4 saturday - black 5 box(by plane). Metaphors that expand the polysemanticism of words are fundamentally different from poetic, individual author's metaphors. The former are linguistic in nature, they are frequent, reproducible, anonymous. The linguistic metaphors that served as the source of the new meaning of the word are mostly non-figurative, therefore they are called "dry", "dead": pipe elbow, boat bow, train tail. But there may be such transfers of meaning, in which imagery is partially preserved: blooming girl, steel will. However, the expressiveness of such metaphors is much inferior to the expression of individual poetic images; cf. language metaphors: a spark of feeling, a storm of passions and poetic images of S. Yesenin: sensual blizzard; a riot of eyes and a flood of feelings; fire blue.

Metonymy(gr. metonymia- renaming) is the transfer of a name from one object to another based on their adjacency. Thus, the transfer of the name of the material to the product from which it is made is metonymic ( gold, silver - Athletes brought gold and silver from the Olympics); the names of the place (premises) to the groups of people who are there ( class, audienceClass preparing for the test;The audience listens carefully to the lecturer); names of dishes for their contents ( porcelain dish - deliciousdish ); the name of the action on its result ( doing embroidery - beautifulembroidery ); the name of the action to the scene of the action or those who perform it ( crossing the mountains - undergroundtransition ; dissertation defense - playin defense ); the name of the item to its owner ( tenor - youngtenor ); the name of the author on his works ( Shakespeare - stagedShakespeare ) etc

Synecdoche(gr. Synekdoche- connotation) is the transfer of the name of the whole to its part, and vice versa. For example, pear 1 - "fruit tree" and pear 2 - "the fruit of this tree"; head 1 - "part of the body" and head 2 - "a smart, capable person"; cherry ripe- in the meaning of "cherries"; we are simple people- so the speaker speaks of himself. Synecdoche is based on transfers of meaning in such expressions, for example: a sense of comradeship, a faithful hand, a helping hand, a kind word.

2.1 Homonyms in Russian

In the lexical system of the Russian language there are words that sound the same, but have absolutely different meanings. Such words are called lexical homonyms, and the sound and grammatical coincidence of different language units that are not semantically related to each other is called homonymy (gr. homos- same + onyma- name). For example, key 1 is "spring" ( icykey ) and key 2 - "a metal rod of a special shape for unlocking and locking the lock" ( steelkey ); onion 1 - "plant" ( greenonion ) and onion 2 - "weapon for throwing arrows" ( tightonion ). Unlike multi-valued words lexical homonyms do not have a subject-semantic connection, i.e. they do not have common semantic features, by which it would be possible to judge the polysemanticism of one word.

known various forms lexical homonymy, as well as related phenomena at other levels of the language (phonetic and morphological). Full lexical homonymy is the coincidence of words belonging to the same part of speech in all forms. An example of full homonyms is the words outfit 1 - "clothes" and outfit 2 - "order"; they do not differ in pronunciation and spelling, they are the same in all case forms singular and plural. With incomplete (partial) lexical homonymy, the coincidence in sound and spelling is observed in words belonging to the same part of speech, not in all grammatical forms. For example, incomplete homonyms: factory - "industrial enterprise" (metallurgicalfactory ) and factory 2 - "device for actuating the mechanism" ( factory at the clock). The second word has no plural forms, but the first one does. For homonymous verbs bury 1 (pit) and bury 2 (drug) match all imperfective forms ( I'm burying, I'm digging, I'll be burying); forms of real participles of the present and past tense ( digging, digging). But there is no match in the forms of the perfect form ( dig - dig etc.).

By structure, homonyms can be divided into root and derivatives. The former have a non-derivative basis: world 1 - "lack of war, consent" ( cameworld ) and world 2 - "universe" ( world filled with sounds); marriage 1 - "flaw in production" ( factorymarriage ) and marriage 2 - "marriage" ( happymarriage ). The latter arose as a result of word formation, therefore, they have a derivative basis: assembly 1 - "action on the verb gather" (assembly designs) and assembly 2 - "small fold in clothes" ( assembly on a skirt); combatant 1 - "relating to actions in the ranks" ( drill song) and combatant 2 - "suitable for buildings" ( combatant forest).

Along with homonymy, they usually consider related phenomena related to the grammatical, phonetic and graphic levels of the language.

Among consonant forms, there are homoforms- words that coincide only in one grammatical form (less often - in several). For example, three 1 - numeral in the nominative case ( three friend) and three 2 - verb in imperative mood 2nd person singular ( three carrots on a grater). Homonymous can be grammatical forms words in one part of speech. For example, adjective forms big, young can indicate, firstly, the nominative singular male (big 1 success, young 1 "specialist); second, to the genitive singular feminine ( big 2 career, young 2 women); thirdly, into the dative singular feminine ( to big 3 career, to young 3 woman); fourthly, to the instrumental case of the feminine singular ( with a big 4 career, with a young 4 woman).

There are also words in Russian that sound the same but are spelled differently. it homophones(gr. homos- same + phone- sound). For example, words meadow and onion, young and hammer, carry and lead coincide in pronunciation due to the stunning of voiced consonants at the end of a word and before a deaf consonant. Changing vowels in an unstressed position leads to the consonance of words rinse and caress, lick and climb up, old-timer and guarded. Words are pronounced the same patronize and march, atstrova and acute, take and brother etc. Consequently, homophones are phonetic homonyms, their appearance in the language is associated with the action of phonetic laws.

Homophony can also manifest itself more widely - in the sound coincidence of a word and several words: Not you, but Sima sufferedunbearable , waterNeva is wearable ; Years beforea hundred grow us withoutold age (M.) Homophony is the subject of study not of lexicology, but of phonetics, since it manifests itself in a different language level- phonetic.

Words that are spelled the same but pronounced differently are called homographs(gr. homos- same + grapho- writing). They usually have stress on different syllables: mugs - mugs, fell asleep - fell asleep, p'arit - steam etc. There are more than a thousand pairs of homographs in modern Russian. Homography is directly related to graphics system language.

Strict differentiation of linguistic phenomena requires to delimit proper lexical homonyms from homoforms, homophones and homographs.

One cannot ignore the fact that the development of polysemy into homonymy can be facilitated by changes that occur in the process of the historical development of society, in the objects themselves (denotations), in the way they are made. So, once the word paper meant "cotton, products from it" and "material for writing". This was due to the fact that in the past paper was made from rag mass. Until the middle of the 19th century, the connection between these meanings was still alive (one could say paper dress, wool fabric with paper). However, with the replacement of raw materials for the production of paper (it began to be made from wood), a semantic splitting of a polysemantic word into homonyms took place. One of them (meaning cotton and products from it) is given in dictionaries in a separate dictionary entry with the note outdated. The transformation of polysemy into homonymy in such cases should not be in doubt.

Difficulties in distinguishing between polysemy and homonymy lead to the fact that sometimes doubts are expressed about the legitimacy of enrolling words in a number of homonyms, the different meanings of which go back to one historical root. With this approach, homonyms include only words that are different in origin. However, it is impossible to agree with such a solution to the problem. Accepting this point of view would push the concept of homonymy into the field of historical lexicology, while the distinction between polysemantic words and homonyms is important precisely for the current state of the language.

In the modern Russian language, a significant number of homonyms have been recorded, and with the development of the language, their number is increasing. The question arises whether homonymy interferes with the correct understanding of speech? After all, homonyms are sometimes called "sick" words, since homonymy reduces the informative function of the word: different meanings get the same shape expressions.

In support of the negative assessment of the phenomenon of homonymy, the idea is also expressed that the very development of the language often leads to its elimination. Many examples can be given similar opposition the language itself to the phenomenon of homonymy. So, adjectives disappeared from the dictionary eternal(from eyelid), wine(from guilt); the latter is supplanted by a related word - guilty.

However, this process is far from active and not consistent in the lexical system of the modern Russian language. Along with the facts of the elimination of homonymy, there is the emergence of new homonyms, homophones and homographs, which has a certain linguistic value and therefore cannot be considered as a negative phenomenon, which the language itself "obstructs".

2.2 Synonyms

Synonyms (gr. Synonymos - the same name) are words that are different in sound, but identical or close in meaning, often differing stylistic coloring: here - here, wife - spouse, look - look; homeland - fatherland, fatherland; brave - courageous, courageous, fearless, fearless, fearless, daring, dashing.

A group of words consisting of several synonyms is called a synonymic row (or nest). Synonymic rows can consist of both heterogeneous and single-root synonyms: face - face, overtake - overtake; fisherman - fisherman, fisherman. The first place in the synonymic series is usually taken by the defining and stylistically neutral word - dominant (Latin dominans - dominant) (it is also called the core, main, key word). Other members of the series clarify, expand its semantic structure, supplement it with evaluative values. So, in the last example, the dominant word is the word brave, it most capaciously conveys the meaning that unites all synonyms - "fearless" and free from expressive and stylistic shades. The rest of the synonyms are distinguished in the semantic-stylistic sense and in the peculiarities of their use in speech. For example, fearless is a book word, interpreted as "very brave"; daring - folk poetic, means "full of daring"; dashing - colloquial - "bold, risk-taking". The synonyms brave, courageous, fearless, fearless differ not only in semantic nuances, but also in the possibilities of lexical compatibility (they are combined only with nouns that call people; one cannot say "brave project", "fearless decision", etc.).

Members of the synonymic series can be not only individual words, but also stable phrases (phraseological units), as well as prepositional case forms: a lot - over the edge, without counting, chickens do not peck. All of them, as a rule, perform the same syntactic function in a sentence.

Synonyms always belong to the same part of speech. However, in the word-formation system, each of them has related words related to other parts of speech and entering into the same synonymous relations; cf. beautiful - charming, charming, irresistible --> beauty - charm, charm, irresistibility; to think - to think, to think, to think, to think --> thoughts - thoughts, reflections, reflections, thoughts. Such synonymy is stably preserved between derivative words: harmony - euphony; harmonious - euphonious; harmony - euphony; harmonious - harmonious. This pattern clearly demonstrates the systemic connections of lexical units.

The Russian language is rich in synonyms, rare synonymic series have two or three members, more often there are many more. However, compilers of synonym dictionaries use different criteria for their selection. This leads to the fact that the synonymic rows of different lexicographers often do not match. The reason for such discrepancies lies in the unequal understanding of the essence of lexical synonymy.

Some scientists consider the designation of the same concept by them as an obligatory sign of synonymous relations of words. Others take their interchangeability as a basis for highlighting synonyms. The third point of view boils down to the fact that the proximity of the lexical meanings of words is recognized as the decisive condition for synonymy. In this case, the following criteria are put forward:

1) proximity or identity of lexical meanings;

2) only the identity of lexical meanings;

3) proximity, but not identity, of lexical meanings.

The most important condition for synonymous words is their semantic proximity, and in special occasions- identity. Depending on the degree of semantic proximity, synonymy can manifest itself to a greater or lesser extent. For example, the synonymy of the verbs hurry - hurry is expressed more clearly than, say, laugh - laugh, flood, roll, roll, giggle, snort, squirt, which have significant semantic and stylistic differences. Synonymy is most fully expressed with the semantic identity of words: here - here, linguistics - linguistics. However, there are few words that are absolutely identical in the language; as a rule, they develop semantic shades, stylistic features that determine their originality in vocabulary. For example, in the last pair of synonyms, differences in lexical compatibility have already been outlined; cf .: domestic linguistics, but structural linguistics.

Full (absolute) synonyms are most often parallel scientific terms: spelling - spelling, nominative - naming, fricative - slot, as well as single-root words formed with the help of synonymic affixes: wretchedness - wretchedness, guard - guard.

With the development of the language, one of the pair of absolute synonyms may disappear. So, for example, the original full-voiced variants fell out of use, giving way to Old Slavonic ones in origin: licorice - sweet, good - brave, helmet - helmet. Others change the meanings, and, as a result, there is a complete break in synonymous relations: lover, lover; vulgar, popular.

Synonyms, as a rule, designate the same phenomenon of objective reality. The nominative function also allows you to combine them into open series, which are replenished with the development of the language, with the emergence of new meanings for words. On the other hand, synonymic relations can break up, and then individual words are excluded from the synonymic series, acquiring other semantic connections. Yes, the word scrupulous, formerly synonymous with haberdashery now synonymized with the words thin, delicate; the word vulgar has ceased to be a synonym for words widespread, popular and approached next to: vulgar - rude, low, immoral, cynical; at the word dream the semantic correlation with the word is currently violated thought, but preserved with the words dream, dream. Accordingly, the system connections of related words also change. Semantic structures the above lexical units influenced the formation of such, for example, synonymous series: scrupulousness - refinement, delicacy; vulgarity - rudeness, baseness; to dream - to dream.

Since synonyms, like most words, are characterized by ambiguity, they are included in complex synonymous relations with other ambiguous words, forming a branched hierarchy of synonymic series. With other words, synonyms are connected by relations of opposites, forming antonymic pairs with them.

Synonymic connections of words confirm the systemic nature of Russian vocabulary

1. Synonyms that differ in shades of meaning are called semantic (semantic, ideographic) For example, wet - damp, damp reflect a different degree of manifestation of the trait - "having significant moisture, saturated with moisture"; cf. also: die - perish, perish- "to cease to exist, to be destroyed (as a result of disasters, the impact of any forces, conditions)".

2. Synonyms that have differences in expressive and emotional coloring and are therefore used in different styles of speech are called stylistic; cf. wife (common) - spouse(official); young(colloquial) - newlyweds(book), eyes(neutral) - eyes(vyc.), face(neutral) - muzzle(reduced) - face(vyc.).

3. Synonyms that differ both in shades of meaning and stylistically are called semantic-stylistic. For example, wander- a bookish word meaning "to go or go without a certain direction, without a goal, or in search of someone or something"; circle (whirl) - colloquial, meaning "changing the direction of movement, often get to the same place"; stray- everyday-colloquial, meaning "to go or go in search of the right direction, the right road"; with the same meaning: get confused- colloquial fornicate- spacious.

In the context, the semantic differences of words close in meaning are often erased, the so-called value neutralization, and while synonyms can be used words that do not belong to the same synonymous series in the lexical system of the language. For example, in phrases voice (murmur) of waves, noise (rustle, rustle, whisper) foliage the highlighted words are interchangeable, but it is impossible to call them synonyms in the strict sense of the term. In such cases, one speaks of contextual synonyms. For their convergence, only conceptual correlation is sufficient. Therefore, in the context, words that cause certain associations in our minds can be synonymized. So, the girl can be called baby, beauty, laughter, whim, coquette etc.

The richness and expressiveness of synonyms in Russian creates unlimited possibilities for their purposeful selection and careful use in speech. Writers, working on the language of their works, attach special importance to synonyms that make speech accurate.

2.3 Antonyms

Antonyms(gr. anti- against + onyma- name) - these are words that are different in sound, having directly opposite meanings: truth - lie, good - evil, speak - be silent .

Antonyms belong to the same part of speech and form pairs.

The development of antonymic relations in vocabulary reflects our perception of reality in all its contradictory complexity and interdependence. Therefore, contrasting words, as well as the concepts they denote, are not only opposed to each other, but are also closely related. Word kind , for example, evokes in our minds the word evil , far reminiscent of close , speed up - about slow down .

Antonyms "are at the extreme points of the lexical paradigm", but between them in the language there may be words that reflect the indicated feature to a different extent, i.e., its decrease or increase. For example: rich - prosperous - poor - poor -beggar ; harmful - harmless - useless -useful . Such opposition suggests a possible degree of strengthening of a sign, quality, action, or gradation(lat. gradient- gradual increase). Semantic gradation (gradation), thus, is characteristic only of those antonyms whose semantic structure contains an indication of the degree of quality: young - old, big - small, small - large and under. Other antonymic pairs are devoid of the sign of gradualness: up - down, day - night, life - death, floor - ceiling, man - woman .

In the lexical system of the language, one can distinguish and antonyms-conversives(lat. conversion- change). These are words expressing the relationship of opposites in the original (direct) and modified (reverse) statements: Alexandergave book to Dmitry.- Dmitrytook Alexander's book Professoraccepts credit from the trainee.-

traineesurrenders requiredcredit to your professor

There is also intra-word antonymy in the language - the antonymy of the meanings of polysemantic words, or enantiosemy(gr. enantios- opposite + sema - sign). This phenomenon is observed in polysemantic words that develop mutually exclusive meanings. For example, the verb depart can mean "to return to normal, feel better", but it can also mean "to die, say goodbye to life." Enantiosemy becomes the reason for the ambiguity of such statements, for example: Editorviewed these lines; Ilistened to divertissement; Speakermisspoke and under.

By structure, antonyms are divided into heteroroot (day Night ) and single root (come - go, revolution - counter-revolution ). The former constitute a group of proper lexical antonyms, the latter - lexico-grammatical. In single-root antonyms, the opposite of meaning is caused by various prefixes, which are also capable of entering into antonymic relations; compare: in lie down -you lay down,at put -from put,per cover -from cover. Therefore, the opposition of such words is due to word formation. However, it should be borne in mind that adding prefixes to quality adjectives, adverbs not- , without- most often gives them the meaning of only a weakened opposite ( young - not young ), so that the contrast of their meaning in comparison with non-prefixed antonyms turns out to be "muffled" ( middle-aged It doesn't mean "old" yet. Therefore, not all prefix formations can be attributed to antonyms in the strict sense of this term, but only those that are extreme members of the antonymic paradigm: successful - unsuccessful, strong - powerless .

In modern linguistics, one sometimes speaks of contextual antonyms, i.e., words opposed in a certain context: "Wolves and sheep." The polarity of the meanings of such words is not fixed in the language, their opposition is of an individual authorial nature. The writer can identify opposite qualities in different concepts and on this basis, contrast them in speech; compare: notmother , adaughter ; solar light -lunar light; oneyear - alllife . However, the words that name such concepts are not antonyms, since their opposition is not reproduced in the language, it is occasional.

Antonymy is used not only to express contrast. Antonyms can show the breadth of spatial and temporal boundaries: FROMsouthern mountains tonorthern seas(OK.); Troops are comingday andnight ; they become uncomfortable(P.), completeness of reflection of phenomena, facts of reality: sleepingrich andpoor , andwise , andstupid , andkind , andfierce (Ch.). Antonyms convey the change of pictures observed in life, the alternation of actions, events: Here in the distanceflashed clear lightning,broke out andwent out (Bl.); Let's make peace . Andquarrel . And again you won't sleep. We'll fold our insomnia into a solid white night(Birth.).

2.4 Paronyms

Paronyms(gr. para - near + onima - name) - these are single-root words that are similar in sound, but do not match in meaning: signature - painting, dress - put on, main - capital.

Paronyms usually refer to the same part of speech and

perform similar syntactic functions in a sentence.

Taking into account the peculiarities of word formation of paronyms, the following groups can be distinguished.

Paronyms that differ prefixes: about seals -from seals,at to pay -about to pay;

Paronyms that differ suffixes: no responsen th - no answerstvenn oh, nounnatural o - nounness ; commanderovann th - commandervegetable th;

Paronyms that differ the nature of the basis: one has a non-derivative base, the other has a derivative. In this case, the pair can be:

words with non-derivative basis and prefixed formations: growth -WHO rast;

Words with a non-derivative stem and non-prefixed words with suffixes: brake - brakeenenie ;

words with a non-derivative stem and words with a prefix and suffix: cargo -on the cargoto a.

Semantically, there are two groups among paronyms.

Paronyms that differ subtle semantic nuances: long - long, desired - desirable, maned - maned, vital - worldly, diplomatic - diplomatic and under. There are a majority of such paronyms, their meanings are commented in linguistic dictionaries (explanatory, dictionaries of difficulties, dictionaries of single-root words, dictionaries of paronyms). Many of them are characterized by features in lexical compatibility; compare: economic effects -economical farming, wealthyinheritance - heavyheritage ; fulfill exercise -perform song.

Paronyms, drastically different in meaning: nest - nest, defective - defective. There are few such units in the language.

A special group of paronyms are those that differ in functional and stylistic fixation or stylistic coloring; compare: work(common) - work(simple and special) live(common) - reside(official).

When studying paronyms, the question naturally arises about their relationship to other lexical categories - homonyms, synonyms and antonyms. So, some scientists consider paronymy as a kind of homonymy, and paronyms, therefore, as "pseudo-homonyms", indicating their formal proximity. However, with homonymy, there is a complete coincidence in the pronunciation of words of different meanings, and paronymic forms have some differences not only in pronunciation, but also in spelling. In addition, the semantic proximity of paronyms is explained etymologically: initially they had a common root. And the similarity of homonymous words in the Russian language is purely external, accidental (with the exception of those cases when homonymy develops as a result of the disintegration of the semantic meanings of a polysemantic word).

Paronyms must also be distinguished from synonyms, although this can sometimes be difficult to do. When distinguishing between these phenomena, it should be borne in mind that the discrepancy in the meanings of paronyms is usually so significant that it is impossible to replace one of them with another.

word vocabulary Russian slang

Chapter 3The origin of the vocabulary of the modern Russian language

The vocabulary of the modern Russian language has come a long way of development. Our vocabulary consists not only of native Russian words, but also of words borrowed from other languages. Foreign sources replenished and enriched the Russian language throughout the entire process of its historical development. Some borrowings were made in antiquity, others, thanks to the development of the Russian language, relatively recently.

Original Russian vocabulary it is heterogeneous in origin: it consists of several layers, which differ in the time of their formation.

The most ancient among native Russian words are Indo-Europeanisms- words preserved from the era of Indo-European linguistic unity. The Indo-European linguistic community gave rise to European and some Asian languages ​​\u200b\u200b(for example, Bengali, Sanskrit).

Words denoting plants, animals, metals and minerals, tools, forms of management, types of kinship, etc. go back to the Indo-European parent language-base: oak, salmon, goose, wolf, sheep, copper, bronze, honey, mother, son, daughter, night, moon, snow, water, new, sew and etc.

Another layer of native Russian vocabulary is made up of words pan-Slavic, inherited by our language from the common Slavic (proto-Slavic), which served as a source for all Slavic languages. This language-base existed in the prehistoric era on the territory between the Dnieper, Bug and Vistula rivers, inhabited by ancient Slavic tribes. By the VI-VII centuries. n. e. the common Slavic language fell apart, opening the way for the development of Slavic languages, including Old Russian. Common Slavic words are easily distinguished in all Slavic languages, the common origin of which is obvious even in our time.

There are a lot of nouns among common Slavic words. These are, first of all, concrete nouns: head, throat, beard, heart, palm; field, mountain, forest, birch, maple, ox, cow, pig; sickle, pitchfork, knife, seine, neighbor, guest, servant, friend; shepherd, spinner, potter. There are also abstract nouns, but there are fewer of them: faith, will, guilt, sin, happiness, glory, rage.

The third layer of native Russian words consists of East Slavic(Old Russian) vocabulary, which developed on the basis of the language of the Eastern Slavs, one of the three groups of ancient Slavic languages. The East Slavic linguistic community developed by the 7th-9th centuries. n. e. on the territory of Eastern Europe. The tribal unions that lived here go back to the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian nationalities. Therefore, the words that have remained in our language from this period are known, as a rule, both in Ukrainian and in Belarusian, but are absent in the languages ​​of the Western and Southern Slavs.

As part of the East Slavic vocabulary, one can distinguish: 1) the names of animals, birds: dog, squirrel, jackdaw, drake, bullfinch; 2) names of labor tools: axe, blade; 3) names of household items: boots, ladle, casket, ruble; 4) names of people by profession: carpenter, cook, shoemaker, miller; 5) names of settlements: village, freedom.

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Encyclopedic YouTube

• 1 / 5

  According to its origin, the vocabulary of the modern Russian language is divided into two large unequal groups:

  • primordial;
  • borrowed.

  Aboriginal vocabulary

  The original vocabulary is divided into the following groups:

  • common Indo-European (names of animals, terms of kinship and simple numerals: sheep, bull, wolf, meat; brother, daughter, mother; one, two, three, four, five and so on.)
  • common Slavic, which goes back to the linguistic community of all Slavs in the VI-VII centuries. During this period, most of the words of modern Russian and other Slavic languages ​​appeared, denoting the names of trees, plants, birds, basic household items: boron, branch, wood, bark, forest, sheet,boughs; oak, spruce, maple, Linden, pine, bird cherry, ash; peas, poppy; oats, millet, wheat, barley; forge, flog; hoe, the cloth, shuttle; house, shelter, floor, canopy; goose, chicken, starling, nightingale; kvass, kissel, salo, cheese, sword, book and so on.
  • The East Slavic layer is represented by Old Russian words that appeared and spread within the Slavic population of Kievan Rus, which flourished in the 11th-12th centuries. This includes words such as rumble, gray, good; uncle, stepdaughter; lace, churchyard; squirrel, finch; fourty, ninety; suddenly, today and etc.
  • proper Russian lexical units began to appear from the end of the 15th century. These include, for example, the words grumble, coo, crush, thin out, scold; cover, irradiation, wallpaper; cabbage rolls, kulebyaka; total, bluntly, deception, an experience and many others.

  Borrowed vocabulary

  In count foreign borrowings Modern Russian as a whole occupies a balanced position in the circle of Slavic languages. Their number is not as great as in Polish, but not as insignificant as in Croatian, where linguistic purism is noted. In this regard, the modern Serbian language is close to him. Despite the influx of words of non-Slavic origin into the Russian language over the past 400 years, most of the borrowings in Russian are borrowings from other Slavic languages, first of all, these are Church Slavonicisms, which make up up to 10% of the vocabulary of the Russian language. Another significant group of early borrowings are groups of words of Turkic origin - Turkisms. Later borrowings represent Polonisms, Bohemisms, Gallicisms, Grecisms, Latinisms, Italianisms, Hispanisms, Germanisms, Anglicisms and others.

  In modern Russian, there are many lexical borrowings from Church Slavonic (these include, for example, such familiar words, how thing, time, air, delight, verb, single, withdraw, reward, cloud, general, response, victory, work, advice, compose, vain, excessive and many others. etc.), some of which coexist with proper Russian doublets, which differ from Church Slavonic ones in meaning or stylistically, cf. (Church Slavonic word is given first): power / volost, drag / drag, head / head, citizen / city dweller, milky / milky, darkness / darkness, clothes / clothes, equal / even, depravity / reversal, give birth / give birth, cathedral / collection, guard / watchman and others. Individual morphemes were also borrowed from Church Slavonic into the literary language (for example, verb prefixes from-, bottom-, before- and co-) and even separate grammatical forms - for example, verbal participles(cf. Church Slavonic in origin participles current or burning with their corresponding native Russian forms fluid and hot, preserved in the modern language as adjectives with the meaning of a constant property) or forms of verbs like flutters(with an alternation unusual for proper Russian forms t/w, cf. primordially Russian laughs or babbles).

  The vocabulary of the modern Russian language was greatly influenced by those languages ​​with which Russian (and earlier Old Russian and Proto-Slavic dialects) had been in contact for a long time. The oldest layer of borrowings is of East German ("Gothic") origin (these are words such as dish, letter, camel, much, hut, prince, cauldron, cross, buy, donkey, plow, glass, bread, barn, hill, artist, church, helmet etc.), as well as a few, but important words borrowed from ancient Iranian languages ​​("Scythian vocabulary") - for example, heaven, dog, ax(however, it should be borne in mind that not all of these Germanic and Iranian etymologies are considered absolutely indisputable). Germanic (mostly Scandinavian) origin and some Russian personal names, for example, Gleb, Igor, Oleg, Olga.

  The next layer in time is made up of Greek words ( hell, letter, clerk, abbot, icon, katavasia, penal servitude, bed, crocodile, doll, magnet, cucumber, ward, sail, pop, shroud, beetroot, bench, notebook, vinegar, lantern etc.) and Turkic origin ( diamond, lasso, head, shoe, biryuk, money, raisin, wild boar, treasury, border, shackles, trap, guard, caftan, carpet, sausage, quiver, horse, hearth, barn, chest, goods, fog, prison, hut, tent, pants, coachman, label and etc.; some of these words, in turn, go back to Arabic or Persian sources). It should be borne in mind that the vast majority of Russian personal baptismal names are also borrowed from Greek (such as Alexander, Alexey, Anatoly, Andrey, Arkady, Vasily, Vlas, Gennady, George, Denis, Dmitry, Evgeny, Kirill, Kuzma, Leonid, Luka, Makar, Nikita, Nikolai, Peter, Stepan, Timofey, Fedor, Philip; Anastasia, Barbara, Galina, Ekaterina, Elena, Zoya, Irina, Xenia, Pelageya, Praskovya, Sophia, Tatyana and etc.; through Greek, such common Christian names of Hebrew origin as Benjamin, Daniel, Ivan, Ilya, Matvey, Mikhail, Naum, Osip, Semyon, Yakov; Anna, Elizabeth, Mary, Martha and etc.).

  In the XVI-XVII centuries. the main source of borrowings is polish, through which a large number of Latin, Romance and Germanic words penetrate into Russian (for example, algebra, author, pharmacy, Africa, screw, hubbub, arrogance, barracks, keys, jacket, kitchen, paint, painter, music, drill, shell, Paris, please, mail, private, powder, crimson, leggings, company, market, knight, steel, dance, plate, factory, fake, fortel, goal, shop, figure, school, grind, sword, thing, bayonet, card sharper, skirt, fair and many others. etc.), as well as a certain number of proper Polish ( jar, bottle, redneck, monogram, allow, finish off, thorough, bully, inveterate, passionate, inveterate, beg, rabbit, jacket, cop, tradesman, courage, fatherland, stick, lousy, jam, tease, duel, lieutenant, suburb, capital, suma, buffoon, lad, fumbling, mischievous, cheat sheet and etc.).

  The influence of the South Russian dialect of the Russian language took place in the 17th - early 18th centuries. In the Russian language of that time: girlo, relish, savory, tavern, tavern, zlochinets, joke, duties, station wagon, commission and others. In the modern Russian language, words of a mostly everyday-ethnographic and historical nature associated with the South of Russia have been preserved: hut, way, dumplings, pot, scroll, tavern, tavern, bandura, hopak, mace, haidamak, father(ataman), lad and others.; not a large number of common words: shtetl, kids, girls, kosovitsa, grain grower, farmer(the word was created on this model cotton grower), milkmaid; in 1920 - 1930s.: hut-reading room, hut-laboratory. Stylistically colored words and expressions used to emphasize the "simplicity" of speech: already, with a hook: a hundred kilometers with a hook, zhinka, dad, do not go ahead of the father in hell; ironically: sack, open, do not rock the boat, kurkul, schoolboy, verse, paint, do anyhow, my hut is on the edge, elderberry in the garden, and uncle in Kyiv, in particular those that are used in relation to Ukrainians and Ukraine: independent, broad Ukrainian, mova; some proper names: Oksana instead of Xenia or Aksinya, affectionate forms Marusya, Natalochka. In the Russian language on the territory of modern Ukraine, there are numerous cases of profanity.

  In the new period (from the 18th century), borrowings come mainly from the Dutch ( apricot, admiral, orange, boatswain, trousers, drift, umbrella, south, cable, cabin, bunk, coffee, sailor, wig, flight, rudder, mouthpiece, hold, fairway, flute, lock, yacht), German ( paragraph, bandage, exchange, accountant, tie, general, count, huntsman, hall, apartment, cinema, blot, resort, coachman, lieutenant, master, uniform, mouthpiece, officer, parade ground, planer, locksmith, mourning, fireworks, paramedic, time pressure, cement, mine, tire, screen, barrier, train, headquarters, staff, ersatz and many others. others) and French ( lampshade, avant-garde, advance, album, actor, barrier, boulevard, bourgeoisie, bureau, veil, garage, debut, conductor, dossier, shower, blinds, magazine, canvas, caprice, kiosk, nightmare, courage, shop, make-up, car, menu, Negro, pavilion, parachute, park, password, ground, platform, platform, beach, district, rubber, relief, repair, restaurant, risk, role, piano, season, soup, circulation, sidewalk, trick, style, fairy, fairy, fairy, fairy foyer, chance, charm, overcoat, highway, driver and many others. etc.).

  Currently, the most powerful source of borrowings is English, some borrowings from which date back to the 19th - first half of the 20th century. (early borrowings - avral, iceberg, bar, boycott, boxing, station, clown, club, cowboy, cocktail, elevator, rally, rails, rum, square, sports, start, tank, tennis, shorts, fashionable, finish, folklore, football, hooligan, shorts, newer - business, businessman, briefing, dumping, default, jeans, dispatcher, clearing, harvester, container, computer, content, leasing, marketing, rating, trend, weekend, file, holding and many others. etc.). Some English words were borrowed into Russian twice - for example, the old lunch and modern lunch; the newest English borrowings often displace earlier borrowings from other European languages ​​- for example, new English. franchising and old French franchise, New English bowling and old German bowling alley in the same sense, new English. broker and old German broker, New English office and old German office, New English tagline and old German slogan, New English lobster and old French lobster, New English hit and old German smash hit, New English price list and old German price-list and etc.

  From other European languages, there were significantly fewer borrowings, but in certain areas of the lexicon their role is also quite important. For example, a number of military terms are borrowed from Hungarian ( haiduk, hussar, saber), a large number of musical, as well as a number of financial, culinary and other terms - from Italian (sometimes through French or German mediation): advice note, aria, bravo, cello, libretto, pasta, malaria, opera, pasta, clown, piano, balance, somersault, scherzo, solfeggio, sonata, soprano and etc.

  In turn, there are many ancient borrowings from Russian in the Finno-Ugric languages ​​(for example, in Finnish and Karelian, Mordovian, Mari, etc.). A number of Russian words (including those borrowed by origin) have become internationalisms, already borrowed from Russian into many languages ​​​​of the world ( vodka, dacha, mammoth, matryoshka, perestroika, pogrom, samovar, satellite, steppe, tsar).

  The Russian language is great and boundless. He is handsome and versatile. What is vocabulary in Russian? What is a word and what are its attributes?

  Vocabulary is absolutely all the words of a certain language. Lexicology is a subject that is quite mobile in any language, because it reacts to all changes in the life of society.

  The main subject of study is the word itself. Its features are the presence of a sound form, lexical and grammatical meaning. Only independent parts of speech have lexical meaning, with the exception of pronouns, as well as proper names.

  Variety of vocabulary and its features

  There are such sections of vocabulary as semasiology, onomasiology, etymology, phraseology, onomastics, and lexicography. Features of the vocabulary are quite diverse.

  

  She has historical character, consists of subsystems, is characterized by hierarchical, paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations, and also has a large number of units, close connection with context and an open system.

  The social structure of the Russian language

  What is vocabulary in Russian is a rather ambiguous question. The fact is that for each layer of society there is a language. There are five types of national jargon, dialects, as well as professional and literary vocabulary.

  

  What is a codified language?

  Literary language - highest form language and the basis of the culture of speech. It is characterized by normativity, stylistic differentiation, multifunctionality and the highest social prestige. It is a complete contrast to non-codified subsystems, which include dialects, vernacular, slang, as well as jargon.

  What is language normativity?

  Normativity is the presence of orthoepic, spelling, lexical, grammatical and stylistic norms. For example, in the east of Ukraine, many people say they took it and understood it. Such stress is a violation. In the Russian literary language, the norms are enshrined in dictionaries and reference books. Codified language is used in all areas of activity and exists in different functional styles.

  Vocabulary of the Russian language in terms of origin

  The vocabulary of the Russian language is the result of a long historical development. At the moment, there are many ancient, by origin, words in the language, such as: bread, water, oak and many others. is divided into two groups - primordially Russian and borrowed. These are mostly neologisms. There are many reasons to borrow. The most popular of them are an attempt to shorten the original Russian word, the historical contact of peoples and the lack of a name for a new phenomenon or object in the vocabulary.

  Non-codified vocabulary

  Profanity is a vocabulary that lacks literary norms.

  

  Such vocabulary includes vernacular, rude expressive words, including obscenity and obscenity, vulgarisms, dialectisms, slang, jargon, and slang.

  Vernacular is a vocabulary that does not have a systemic character. It is usually used by persons who do not fully master the norms of the literary language. Roughly expressive words are classified as vernacular. For example, snooze ‘sleep’; to lie ‘to lie’ and others. Such lexical group characterized by an expression of relation to the signified.

  Mat, as well as obscene vocabulary - one of the most important signs of vernacular. With the help of mats, the colloquial speaker emphasizes his irritation or readiness for action. Obscene vocabulary is characterized by swear words that are used to express a reaction to an unexpected situation.

  Dialects, slang and jargon

  Dialectisms are also profanity that is used in a certain territory. They are divided into 6 types - phonetic, lexical, semantic, ethnographic, phraseological and grammatical. Argo is used for self-affirmation in the criminal zone. Argotisms include such words as pen ‘knife’, sew on ‘kill’ and others. Jargon is also referred to as profanity. This is a kind of national language used by people with some common social sign. Jargon also includes professionalism. Such words are used by people of any particular profession.

  The question of what is vocabulary in Russian is quite complicated. It is known that the Russian language is one of the most difficult to learn. In order to learn how to speak beautifully, you need to diligently study, as well as memorize all the norms of the literary language. Colloquial speech, dialectisms, as well as swear words should be excluded from your vocabulary as much as possible. Using literary language, your speech will sound extraordinarily beautiful and attract others.