Vocabulary that has ceased to be actively used in speech is not immediately forgotten. For some time, obsolete words are still understandable to the speakers, familiar to them fiction, although when people communicate with them, there is no longer a need for them. Such words become part of the vocabulary passive reserve, they are given in explanatory dictionaries with litter (obsolete). They can be used by writers, depicting past eras, or historians when describing historical facts, but over time, archaisms completely disappear from the language. This was the case, for example, with old Russian words komon - “horse”, usnie - “skin” (hence the barb), worm - “kind of shoes”. Separate obsolete words are sometimes returned to the vocabulary of the active vocabulary. For example, the words soldier, officer, warrant officer, gymnasium, lyceum, promissory note, exchange, department, which were not used for some time, are now again actively used in speech.

Special emotional and expressive coloring obsolete words leaves an imprint on their semantics. “To say that, for example, the verbs to go and walk (...) have such and such meanings without defining them stylistic role, - wrote D.N. Shmelev, - this means, in essence, to abandon precisely their semantic definition, replacing it approximate formula subject-conceptual comparisons. This puts obsolete words in a special stylistic framework and requires them to great attention.

1.9.2. Composition of obsolete words

As part of the archaic vocabulary, historicisms and archaisms are distinguished. Historicisms include words that are the names of disappeared objects, phenomena, concepts (chain mail, hussar, tax in kind, NEP, october (a child of a younger school age, preparing to join the pioneers), NKVDist (NKVD employee - People's Commissariat internal affairs), commissar, etc.). Historicism can be associated both with very distant epochs, and with events of relatively recent times, which, however, have already become facts of history ( Soviet authority, party activist, general secretary, politburo). Historicisms do not have synonyms among the words of the active vocabulary, being the only names of the corresponding concepts.

Archaisms are the names of existing things and phenomena, for some reason displaced by other words belonging to active vocabulary(cf .: every day - always, comedian - actor, gold - gold, know - know).

Obsolete words are heterogeneous in origin: among them are native Russian (full, with a helmet), Old Slavonic (smooth, kiss, shrine), borrowed from other languages ​​(abshid - “resignation”, voyage - “journey”).

Of particular interest in stylistic terms are the words of Old Slavonic origin, or Slavicisms. A significant part of Slavonicisms assimilated on Russian soil and stylistically merged with neutral Russian vocabulary (sweet, captivity, hello), but there are also such Old Slavonic words, which in modern language perceived as an echo high style and retain its characteristic solemn, rhetorical coloring.

The history of poetic vocabulary associated with ancient symbolism and imagery (the so-called poetisms) is similar to the fate of Slavicisms in Russian literature. Names of gods and heroes of Greek and Roman mythology, special poetic symbols (lyre, ellisium, Parnassus, laurels, myrtle), artistic images ancient literature in the first third of the 19th century. formed an integral part of the poetic vocabulary. Poetic vocabulary, like Slavs, strengthened the opposition between sublime, romantically colored speech and everyday, prosaic speech. However, these traditional means of poetic vocabulary were not used for long in fiction. Already the successors of A.S. Pushkin's poeticisms are archaic.

1.9.3. Stylistic functions of obsolete words in artistic speech

Writers often refer to obsolete words as means of expression artistic speech. The history of the use of Old Slavonic vocabulary in Russian fiction, especially in poetry, is interesting. Stylistic Slavisms made up a significant part of the poetic vocabulary in the works of writers of the first third of the 19th century. Poets found in this vocabulary a source of sublimely romantic and "sweet" sounding of speech. Slavicisms that have consonant variants in Russian, primarily non-vowel ones, were shorter than Russian words by one syllable and were used in the 18th-19th centuries. on the rights of "poetic liberties": poets could choose from two words one that corresponded to the rhythmic structure of speech (I will sigh, and my languid voice, like a harp's voice, will die quietly in the air. - Bat.). Over time, the tradition of "poetic liberties" is overcome, but outdated vocabulary attracts poets and writers as strong remedy expression.

Obsolete words perform various stylistic functions in artistic speech. Archaisms and historicisms are used to recreate the color of distant times. In this function, they were used, for example, by A.N. Tolstoy:

« Earth ottich and dedich- these are the shores deep rivers and forest clearings where our ancestor came to live forever. (...) he fenced his dwelling with a fence and looked along the path of the sun into the distance of centuries.

And he imagined a lot - heavy and hard times: Igor's red shields Polovtsian steppes, and the groans of the Russians on the Kalka, and the peasant spears installed under the banners of Dmitry on the Kulikovo field, and the ice covered with blood Lake Peipsi, and the Terrible Tsar, who parted united, now indestructible, the limits of the earth from Siberia to the Varangian Sea ... ".

Archaisms, especially Slavicisms, give speech an elevated, solemn sound. Old Slavonic vocabulary acted in this function back in ancient Russian literature. AT poetic speech 19th century with the high Old Slavonic vocabulary, Old Russianisms were stylistically equalized, which also began to be involved in creating the pathos of artistic speech. The high, solemn sound of obsolete words is also appreciated by writers of the 20th century. During the years of the Great Patriotic War I.G. Ehrenburg wrote: “Having repulsed the blows of predatory Germany, she (the Red Army) saved not only the freedom of our Motherland, she saved the freedom of the world. This is the guarantee of the triumph of the ideas of brotherhood and humanity, and I see in the distance a world enlightened by grief, in which good will shine. Our people showed their military virtues…»

Outdated vocabulary can acquire an ironic connotation. For example: Which of the parents does not dream of a smart, balanced child who grasps everything literally on the fly. But attempts to turn your child into a "miracle" catastrophically often end in failure (from the gas.). The ironic rethinking of obsolete words is often facilitated by the parodic use of elements of high style. In the parodic-ironic function, obsolete words often appear in feuilletons, pamphlets, and humorous notes. Let us refer to an example from a newspaper publication during the preparations for the day the president took office (August 1996):

New leader working group in preparation for the celebration, Anatoly Chubais enthusiastically set to work. He believes that the script of the ceremony should be developed "for centuries", and therefore there is no place in it for "temporary", mortal delights. The latter included an ode already written for the holiday, which could conditionally be called "On the day of the ascension of President Yeltsin to the Kremlin." The work suffered a bitter fate: Chubais did not approve it, and on August 9 we will not sing:

Our proud state is great and majestic.

The whole country is full of strength, she made the choice!

("Inauguration is not a game")

There is an opinion that obsolete vocabulary is common in formal business style. Indeed, in business papers are used individual words and turns of speech, which in other conditions we have the right to consider as archaisms [for example, legal terms act, capable, deed, punishment, retribution in dictionaries are accompanied by a mark (arch.)]. In some documents they write: this year, attached to this, the undersigned, the above named, etc. These special official business words within "their" functional style expressive coloring Dont Have. Such outdated vocabulary in an official business style does not carry any stylistic load.

An analysis of the stylistic functions of archaisms in a particular work requires knowledge of the general language norms in force in the era being described. For example, in the works of writers of the XIX century. there are words that have become archaic in more late time. So, in the tragedy of A.S. Pushkin "Boris Godunov", along with archaisms and historicisms, there are words that have become part of the passive vocabulary only in Soviet time(king, I reign, etc.); Naturally, they should not be considered obsolete vocabulary which carries a certain stylistic load in the work.

1.9.4. Errors caused by the use of obsolete words

The use of obsolete words without taking into account their expressive coloring becomes the cause of rude stylistic mistakes. For example: Sponsors in the boarding school were welcomed with joy; The laboratory assistant went to the chief and told him about what had happened. The young entrepreneur quickly saw the efficiency of his manager - in these proposals, Slavicisms are archaic. The word welcome is not even included in the "Dictionary of the Russian Language" by S.I. Ozhegov, in the Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language, ed. D.N. Ushakov, it is given with a litter (obsolete, poet.); Ozhegov marked the word to tell (outdated), and Ushakov - (outdated, rhetor.); see has a litter (old). A context in which there is no setting for a humorous coloring of speech does not allow the use of obsolete words; they should be replaced by synonyms (greeted, told, saw [noted]).

Sometimes authors, using an obsolete word, distort its meaning. For example: As a result of a stormy meeting of households, the repair of the house was started - the word households, which has a litter (obsolete) in Ozhegov's dictionary, is explained as "people who live in a family on the rights of its members", and in the text it is used in the meaning of "residents" . Another example from a note in the newspaper: At the meeting, even the most unpleasant shortcomings in the work were revealed. The word impartial means "impartial", besides, it has limited opportunities lexical compatibility(only criticism can be impartial). Misuse archaisms are very often complicated by a violation of lexical compatibility: Andreev was certified as a person who has worked on this path for a very long time (the path is chosen, the path is followed, but they do not work on it).

Sometimes the meaning of an obsolete grammatical form of a word is distorted. For example: He refuses to testify, but that doesn't matter. Essence - third person form plural verb to be, and the subject is in singular, the bundle must be consistent with it.

Outdated words can give the text a clerical coloring. (Similar buildings, not required at one site, are required at another; Classes should be held in a proper room). In business papers, where many archaisms have become fixed as terms, the use of such special vocabulary should be appropriate. It is impossible, for example, to consider it stylistically justified to resort to obsolete turns of speech at your discretion, I am attaching the above-named offender, upon receipt of such, etc.

The stylists point out that recent times obsolete words are spreading outside literary language; and often they are assigned a new value. For example, the word in vain is used incorrectly, which has a mark (obsolete) in Ozhegov's dictionary and is fruitlessly explained by synonyms, in vain [Intentions to find a reasonable compromise remained in vain; The issues of creating crop rotations and the use of a complex of fertilizers remain in vain (better: A reasonable compromise could not be found; ... A crop rotation has not been introduced and a complex of fertilizers has not been applied)]:

With frequent repetition, obsolete words sometimes lose the shade of archaism that distinguished them earlier. This can be seen in the example of the word now. In Ozhegov, this adverb is given with stylistic marks (obsolete) and (high) [cf .: ... now there are slender masses crowding palaces and towers along the renewed banks ... (P.)]. Contemporary authors often used as a stylistically neutral word. For example: Many MIIR graduates are now diplomats; There are not so many students at the faculty today who would be content with a scholarship - in the first sentence the word now should have been omitted, and in the second it should have been replaced with a synonym now. So neglect stylistic coloring obsolete words inevitably leads to speech errors.

I.I. Sreznevsky wrote: “Each word is a representative of a concept that was among the people: what was expressed in a word was in life; what was not in life, for that there was no word. Every word for the historian is a witness, a monument, a fact of the life of the people, all the more important than more important concept, which is expressed by it. Complementing one another, they together represent a system of concepts of the people, the more important, the more important the concept they express. Complementing one another, they together represent the system of concepts of the people, convey the true story of the life of the people” [Sreznevsky 1887: 35].

The stylistic and stylistic functions of archaisms and historicisms in the modern language are defined as:

A) reflection language style eras;

B) the creation of solemnity and poetry of speech;

C) stylization - recreation of the language of the era;

D) lowering the stylistic assessment (ironic, jocular, mocking, contempt, disapproval, etc.).

From listed functions the most important is the first (recreation of color historical era), since a historical description is impossible without the use of obsolete vocabulary. unlike some other vocabulary groups limited use(for example, from special vocabulary), the meanings of obsolete words are rarely subjected to figurative rethinking in the text of historical prose. Historicisms and archaisms are usually used in their direct meaning. Therefore, it is of particular importance that stylistic device as an introduction of obsolete vocabulary into an artistic context. A writer using this technique is faced with the fact that many historicisms or archaisms are incomprehensible to readers. This requires further explanation in the text. If the author uses obscure words without explanation, then they sound “waste” [Larin 1974: 237] and do not perform an aesthetic and informational function.

Historicisms and archaisms fall into two groups from the point of view of understanding their meanings by native speakers of the modern Russian language: obsolete words that are used quite often, preserved in famous works Russian classics, used in contemporary literature and therefore understandable a wide range readers (eyes, military, prince, thief, rope, hand, etc.), and obscure historicisms and archaisms that require mandatory explanation when they are used for stylization purposes.

The interpretation in footnotes and dictionaries is quite common, although this method of introducing obscure words into the context is far from the most successful, since this violates the perception of integrity. artistic text. As B.A. Larin wrote about dialectisms (to which he attributed different groups words of limited use): “... this is an unfavorable, awkward way of enriching the literary language, it is borrowed from scientific practice, but is rarely appropriate in fiction" [Larin 1974: 234].

Another way of introducing obsolete vocabulary into the context seems to be more successful: correlating the meanings with the meanings of common words of the modern lexicon directly in the text of the narrative, using semantic parallels, synonyms - the whole “environment”, which helps to clarify the meaning of the obsolete word:

And whoever does not buy is a pervetnik, an accomplice to enemies.

The friend took pity on the boy.

Lyubava in leather performances on bare feet ...

In the texts of fiction, there are words / meanings of words that are archaic with modern point vision. But here it is necessary to distinguish:

archaization of our linguistic time - the end of the 20th - the beginning of the 21st century;

archaization of the linguistic time of text creation.

Therefore, there are two aspects of the analysis of lexical archaization: the archaization of the time when the work was written and the archaization of the modern reading of the work.

When stylized, the language of a bygone era is not at all reproduced exactly. Sometimes, to achieve the desired effect, the author only needs a few words that fall on the canvas of the narrative, reflecting the old word order. Interestingly, very often such words are pronouns and official words: this, this, so that, because, etc.

Speaking about the role of obsolete words in works that tell about the events of the past, it should be emphasized that, unlike archaisms that carry a purely stylistic load, historicisms, in addition, perform a nominative function, being the only possible designations for those things that the author writes about.

On the use of obsolete vocabulary in historical novels G. O. Vinokur wrote [Vinokur 1991]. Aesthetically justified, in view of the impossibility of a continuous stylization of the language of the depicted time, G.O. Vinokur recognized the principle of greater or lesser approximation to the language of the era, which should be based on the understanding that “there is no strict parallelism between the history of language and the history of life” [Vinokur 1991 : 411]. In this regard, he put forward a very important thesis about the creative expediency of relying in linguistic stylization not on the “fluid”, changeable, but on the “eternal” and general - i.e. to something that can make the language of a historical work understandable and aesthetically satisfying for the reader, while at the same time responding to his desire to feel the color of the era. Attention should be paid to the following statement on the following statement by Vinokur: “... I have the right to say that, without any doubt, you can write a novel for any historical theme without a single linguistic archaism, exclusively by means of a neutral linguistic reserve…” [Vinokur 1991: 414-415].

It is also important here that the concept of neutrality is understood as absolute. The author saw no obstacles to expanding the boundaries of this concept, believing that everything is dictated by the needs of aesthetic conformity. And in this sense, G. O. Vinokur distinguishes between language anachronisms and material anachronisms. If writers are looking for a style that is not satisfied with the neutral layer of language, but requires material evidence taken from the language of the era depicted, then the language itself is included in the circle of those objects that are depicted in these works. And then a proper poetic task arises: the correspondence of the language to the depicted ceases to be an external, technical problem. She, according to the author, "becomes urgent artistic problem image" [Vinokur 1991: 415], when the aesthetic criterion is equal to the criterion of credibility and persuasiveness.

G. O. Vinokur notes: “For a whole century, we have been competing in realistic fiction with two main styles: 1. Imitating and 2. Non-imitating. This is the new contradiction that realism brought with it” [Vinokur 1991: 417.]. The distinguishing feature of the "non-imitating" style is a sharp distinction between the speech of the author and the character, which can be replaced by the fact that the character speaks in the author's way, and not vice versa. The differential feature of the “imitating” style is the inevitable merging of the author and the character in character speech, “necessarily associated with the “stucco”, “ornamental” sense of the language, and not with its strict geometric pattern”.

A historical novel must necessarily be written in the language of the author and his milieu, and at the same time, it must be the language not of the author and his milieu, but of the epoch he depicts. Consequently, we can only talk about a greater or lesser approximation to the language of the depicted environment and era, i.e. about a certain selection of imitated or cited facts of language. This can only be achieved by a certain selection of the means available to the author who studies the epoch which serves him as a theme.

State educational institution
higher professional education
Branch of RSSU in Sochi

abstract

Department: “Translation and Translation Studies”

By discipline: "Stylistics of the Russian language and culture of speech"

On the topic: "Stylistic functions of obsolete words in artistic speech"

Completed by: 1st year student

Babaeva Leyla Vagifovna

Specialties: "Linguist translator"

Lecturer: Lozhnikova G.P.

Sochi 2010
Content:

Introduction…………………………………………………………………………… 1

1. Archaic vocabulary in the system of the Russian language……………………………2

1.1 The concept of archaisms. Processes of archaization and renewal of Russian vocabulary……………………………………………………………………………….2-7

1.2 Linguistic science of archaisms and their stylistic use…… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Conclusion………………………………………………………………………….13

List of used literature

Introduction

Each word in the Russian language has its own "life", some of the words forever disappear from everyday life due, for example, to the disappearance of the concept itself, which was denoted by one or another word. Obsolete words - words that are not used in modern Russian, are divided into two groups: archaisms and historicisms. A distinctive feature of these concepts is that historicisms are the names of objects that eventually disappeared from life forever, and archaisms are obsolete names of objects and concepts that are still present in modern life, but for one reason or another got a different name.
Understanding the concept of "obsolete words" is necessary in order not to make mistakes in the style of the text, while errors in the use of historicisms or archaisms are associated with ignorance of them lexical meaning. In other words, historicisms do not have synonyms, but archaisms do.
Historicisms - obsolete words that do not have synonyms include the following names and phrases: armyak, camisole, bursa, oprichnik, classy lady, arshin, attorney, general-in-chief, your excellency, mademoiselle, chinkhonets, seamstress, potbelly stove, partykhohaktiv, etc. .
With archaisms, the situation is somewhat more difficult. Obsolete words of this group have synonyms and are divided into three categories:
1. phonetic - obsolete words that differ from modern synonyms in terms of sound, for example: young - young; shore - shore; gold - gold; number - number; hospital - hospital; hall - hall, etc.
2. derivational - archaisms in which an outdated suffix is ​​used that is not applicable to modern vocabulary, for example: museum - museum; assistance - assistance; to flirt - to flirt; here - in general, etc.
3. lexical - obsolete words that have completely gone out of use, which have been replaced by modern synonyms, for example: eye - eye; mouth - lips; lanitis - cheeks; right hand - right hand; stogna - area; rescript - decree; this - this one; to speak - to speak; face - face, etc.
Despite the fact that archaisms and historicisms are leaving our everyday life, they should not be completely forgotten, since they help to achieve the necessary color and historical coloring in the text.

1. Archaic vocabulary in the Russian language system
1.1 The concept of archaisms. Processes of archaization and updating of Russian vocabulary
Archaisms (from the Greek "ancient") - words, individual meanings of words, phrases, as well as some grammatical forms and syntactic constructions, obsolete and out of active use 1 .
Among the archaisms, a group of historicisms stands out, the disappearance of which from the active dictionary is associated with the disappearance of certain objects and phenomena from public life, for example, "podyachy", "petition", "chain mail", "horse", "nepman". Usually, archaisms give way to other words with the same meaning: “victoria” - “victory”, “stogna” - “square”, “rescript” - “decree”, “face”, “eye”, “vezhda”, “young ". "hail", giving the speech a color of solemnity. Some non-archaic words lose their former meaning. For example, “Everything that scrupulous London sells for a plentiful whim” (A.S. Pushkin, “Eugene Onegin”); here "scrupulous" has for the present time the archaic meaning of "haberdashery". Or in last time Gudal sits down on a white-maned horse, and the train starts” (M.Yu. Lermontov, “Demon”). "Train" is not "a set of railway cars", but "a row of horsemen riding one after another". In some cases, archaisms can come back to life (compare the history of the words “council”, “decree” or “general”, “officer” in the Russian language of the 20th century). Sometimes archaic words that have become incomprehensible continue to live in some stable combinations: “You can’t see a thing” - “you can’t see anything at all”, “The cheese forest caught fire” - “a commotion began”.
In fiction, archaisms are widely used as a stylistic means to give solemnity to speech, to create the color of an era, and also for satirical purposes. The masters of using archaisms were A.S. Pushkin ("Boris Godunov"), M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin (“History of one city”), V.V. Mayakovsky ("Cloud in Pants"), A.N. Tolstoy ("Peter the Great"), Yu.N. Tynyanov ("Kyukhlya") and others.
Language, as a system, is in constant motion, development, and the most mobile level of language is vocabulary: it primarily reacts to all changes in society, replenishing with new words. At the same time, the names of objects and phenomena that are no longer used in the life of peoples are falling out of use.
In each period of development, words belonging to the active vocabulary, constantly used in speech, and words that have gone out of everyday use and therefore have acquired an archaic coloring function in it. At the same time in lexical system new words stand out that are just entering it and therefore seem unusual, retain a shade of freshness, novelty. Obsolete and new words are two fundamentally different groups in the vocabulary of the passive vocabulary.
Words that have ceased to be actively used in the language do not immediately disappear from it. For a while they are still intelligible to speakers of given language, are known from fiction, although everyday speech practice no longer needs them. Such words make up the vocabulary of the passive stock and are listed in explanatory dictionaries marked "outdated".
According to researchers, the process of archaization of a part of the dictionary of a particular language, as a rule, takes place gradually, therefore, among obsolete words there are those that have a very significant "experience" (for example, child, vorog, speech, scarlet, therefore, this); others are isolated from the vocabulary of the modern Russian language, as they belong to the Old Russian period of its development. Other words become obsolete in the shortest possible time, appearing in the language and disappearing already in recent period. For comparison: Shkrab - in the 20s. replaced the word teacher, rabkrin - workers' and peasants' inspection; Enkavedist - an employee of the NKVD. Such nominations do not always have corresponding marks in explanatory dictionaries, since the process of archaization of a particular word may be perceived as not yet completed.
The reasons for the archaization of vocabulary are different: they can be extralinguistic (extralinguistic) in nature, if the refusal to use the word is associated with social transformations in the life of society, but they can also be due to linguistic laws. For example, the adverbs oshchuyu, odesnuyu (left, right) disappeared from the active dictionary, because the generating nouns shuytsa became archaic - “ left hand"and the right hand -" right hand ". In such cases, systemic relations played a decisive role. lexical items. So, the word shuytsa fell out of use, and the semantic connection of the words united by this historical root also fell apart (for example, the word Shulga did not stay in the language in the meaning of "left-handed" and remained only as a surname ascending to a nickname). Antomic pairs were destroyed (shuytsa - right hand, left hand - right hand), synonymous connections (left hand, left hand) 2 .
By its origin, the outdated vocabulary is heterogeneous: it contains a lot of primordially Russian words (lzya, so that, this, semo), Old Slavonicisms (smooth, kiss, loins), borrowings from other languages ​​(abshid - “resignation”, voyage - “journey”, politeness - "politeness").
There are known cases of the revival of obsolete words, their return to the active vocabulary. So, in modern Russian, such nouns as soldier, officer, warrant officer, minister and a number of others are actively used, which after October became archaic, giving way to new ones: Red Army soldier, commander, people's commissar, etc. In the 20s. the word leader was extracted from the composition of the passive vocabulary, which even in the Pushkin era was perceived as obsolete and was cited in the dictionaries of that time with the appropriate stylistic mark. Now it is archaic again.
Analyzing the stylistic functions of obsolete words in artistic speech, one cannot but take into account the fact that their use in some cases (as well as the use of other lexical means) may not be associated with a specific stylistic task, but is due to the peculiarities of the author's style, individual preferences of the writer. So, for M. Gorky, many obsolete words were stylistically neutral, and he used them without a special stylistic setting: “People passed us slowly, dragging long shadows behind them ...”.
In poetic speech Pushkin's time appeal to discordant words and other Old Slavonicisms that have consonant Russian equivalents, was often due to versification: in accordance with the requirement of rhythm and rhyme, the poet preferred one or another option (as “poetic liberties”): “I will sigh, and my voice is languid, like a harp’s voice, quietly will die in the air” (Bath); “Onegin, my good friend, was born on the banks of the Neva ... - Go to the Neva shores, newborn creation ...” (Pushkin). To late XIX centuries, poetic liberties were eliminated and the amount of obsolete vocabulary in the poetic language decreased sharply. However, even Blok, and Yesenin, and Mayakovsky, and Bryusov, and other poets of the early 20th century paid tribute to obsolete words traditionally assigned to poetic speech (although Mayakovsky already turned to archaisms mainly as a means of irony, satire). Echoes of this tradition are found even today: “Winter is a solid regional city, and not a village at all” (Yevtushenko).
In addition, it is important to emphasize that when analyzing the stylistic functions of obsolete words in a particular work of art, one should take into account the time of its writing, to know the general language norms that were in force in that era. After all, for a writer who lived a hundred or two hundred years ago, many words could be quite modern, commonly used units that have not yet passed into the passive vocabulary.
The need to refer to an outdated dictionary also arises among the authors of scientific and historical works. To describe the past of Russia, its realities that have gone into oblivion, historicisms are involved, which in such cases act in their own nominative function. So, academician D.S. Likhachev in his works “The Tale of Igor's Campaign”, “The Culture of Russia in the Time of Andrei Rublev and Epiphanius the Wise” uses many words unknown to a modern native speaker, mainly historicism, explaining their meaning.
Sometimes the opinion is expressed that obsolete words are also used in official business speech. Indeed, in legal documents sometimes there are words that, under other conditions, we can attribute to archaisms: deed, punishment, retribution, deed. In business papers they write: this is attached, this kind, the undersigned, the above named. Such words should be treated as special. They are fixed in an official business style and do not carry any expressive stylistic load in the context. However, the use of obsolete words that do not have a strict terminological meaning can cause unjustified archaism. business language. In highly stratified developed languages, such as English, archaisms can serve as professional jargon, which is especially true for jurisprudence. Archaism is a lexical unit that has fallen into disuse, although the corresponding object (phenomenon) remains in real life and receives other names (obsolete words, supplanted or replaced by modern synonyms). The reason for the appearance of archaisms is in the development of the language, in updating its vocabulary: one word is replaced by another.
Displaced words do not disappear without a trace, they are preserved in the literature of the past, they are necessary in historical novels and essays - to recreate the life and language coloring of the era. Examples: forehead - forehead, finger - finger, mouth - lips, etc.
Any language is constantly changing over time. New words appear, and some lexical units quietly disappear into the past, cease to be used in speech. Words that are out of use are called archaisms. Their use when writing poetic works is highly undesirable - for some readers, as a result of this, the meaning may be partially lost.
However, for certain categories texts, archaisms are quite acceptable and even desirable. Among them are works written on historical and religious themes. In this case, skillfully used archaism will allow the author to more accurately describe events, actions, objects, or his feelings. Archaisms include the names of currently existing objects and phenomena, for some reason displaced by other, more modern names. For example: every day - “always”, a comedian - “actor”, it is necessary - “it is necessary”, Persian - “chest”, verb - “to speak”, to know - “to know”. Some scholars do not recommend confusing archaisms with historicisms. If not only the word is outdated, but also the very phenomenon denoted by this word, then this is historicism, for example: veche, endova, onuchi, etc. Other scholars consider historicisms a subspecies of archaisms. If we adhere to this, simpler position, then a logical and easy-to-remember definition of archaisms sounds like this: archaisms are obsolete and obsolete names or names of obsolete objects and phenomena that have gone down in history.
Among the archaisms proper, which have synonyms in the modern language, a distinction must be made between words that are already completely obsolete and therefore sometimes incomprehensible to members of the community who speak the given language, and such archaisms that are in the process of becoming obsolete. Their meanings are clear, however, they are almost never used.
Thus, it seems appropriate to divide archaisms into words ancient or forgotten, which are terms of antiquity and are resurrected only for special stylistic purposes in the modern literary language, and obsolete words, i.e. that have not yet lost their significance in the system of vocabulary of the modern literary language.
etc.................

Obsolete words perform various stylistic functions in artistic speech. Archaisms and historicisms are used to recreate the color of distant times. In this function, they were used, for example, by A.N. Tolstoy: “The land of Ottich and Dedich are those banks of full-flowing rivers and forest clearings where our ancestor came to live forever. (...) he fenced his dwelling with a fence and looked along the path of the sun into the distance of centuries. And he imagined a lot - hard and difficult times: Igor's red shields in the Polovtsian steppes, and the groans of Russians on Kalka, and peasant spears installed under Dmitry's banners on Kulikovo field, and the blood-drenched ice of Lake Peipsi, and the Terrible Tsar, who pushed the united, henceforth indestructible, boundaries of the earth from Siberia to the Varangian Sea ... ".

Archaisms, especially Slavicisms, give speech an elevated, solemn sound. Old Slavonic vocabulary performed this function even in ancient Russian literature. In the poetic speech of the XIX century. with the high Old Slavonic vocabulary, Old Russianisms were stylistically equalized, which also began to be involved in creating the pathos of artistic speech. The high, solemn sound of obsolete words is also appreciated by writers of the 20th century. During the Great Patriotic War, I.G. Ehrenburg wrote: “Having repulsed the blows of predatory Germany, she (the Red Army) saved not only the freedom of our Motherland, she saved the freedom of the world. This is the guarantee of the triumph of the ideas of brotherhood and humanity, and I see in the distance a world enlightened by grief, in which good will shine. Our people showed their military virtues…”

Outdated vocabulary can acquire an ironic connotation. For example: Which of the parents does not dream of a smart, balanced child who grasps everything literally on the fly. But attempts to turn your child into a "miracle" catastrophically often end in failure (from the gas.). The ironic rethinking of obsolete words is often facilitated by the parodic use of elements of high style. In the parodic-ironic function, obsolete words often appear in feuilletons, pamphlets, and humorous notes. Let us refer to an example from a newspaper publication during the period of preparation for the day the president took office (August 1996): The new head of the working group for preparing the celebration, Anatoly Chubais, enthusiastically set to work. He believes that the script of the ceremony should be developed "for centuries", and therefore there is no place in it for "temporary", mortal delights. The latter included an ode already written for the holiday, which could conditionally be called "On the day of the ascension of President Yeltsin to the Kremlin." The work suffered a bitter fate: Chubais did not approve it, and on August 9 we will not sing:

Our proud state is great and majestic.

The whole country is full of strength, she made the choice!

(“Inauguration is not a game”) There is an opinion that outdated vocabulary is common in official business style. Indeed, certain words and turns of speech are used in business papers, which in other conditions we have the right to consider as archaisms [for example, legal terms deed, capable, deed, punishment, retribution in dictionaries are accompanied by a mark (arch.)]. In some documents they write: this year, attached to this, the undersigned, the above named, etc. These special official business words do not have an expressive coloring within their “own” functional style. Such outdated vocabulary in an official business style does not carry any stylistic load.

An analysis of the stylistic functions of archaisms in a particular work requires knowledge of the general language norms in force in the era being described. For example, in the works of writers of the XIX century. there are words that archaized at a later time. So, in the tragedy of A.S. Pushkin "Boris Godunov", along with archaisms and historicisms, there are words that became part of the passive vocabulary only in Soviet times (tsar, reign, etc.); Naturally, they should not be classified as obsolete vocabulary that carries a certain stylistic load in the work.

No. 20Slavicisms - words borrowed from Old Slavonic or (later) from Church Slavonic. AT general case these are words that have a Russian synonym in the literary language.

Lomonosov singled out "unintelligible" Slavicisms ( clear, I love) and generally accepted ( horse, eyes). The stylistic effect of Slavicisms also depends on the degree of assimilation.

Already Lomonosov's theory of styles was based on the relationship between two funds of the Russian literary language - the fund of the so-called "Slovene" (Old Slavonic or Church Slavonic) words and the fund of purely Russian words.

Do not confuse Slavicisms and archaisms. Old Church Slavonic is not ancient form Russian language. They coexisted together, and Old Church Slavonic was a source of constant borrowing. The words clothes, sky, head(in the book) do not give the impression of obsolescence. Archaisms are words that are dying out, falling into disuse, but the same cannot be said about Slavicisms in general. Slavonicisms cannot be classified as barbarism either, since the Old Slavonic language, in that part of it in which it was assimilated into Russian, was not a foreign language.

Phonetic signs Slavisms

1. Disagreement

Oro / ra (enemy / enemy), ere / re (shore / shore), olo / le, la (full / captivity, parish / power).

It must be remembered that one can speak about full agreement / disagreement only when there are pairs of words.

Words can change their meaning: gunpowder / dust. Only one word from a pair can be saved (full-vowel or non-vowel): peas/grah, time/ time. For the literature, the most interesting case is when both words of the pair are preserved. Then Slavicisms are perceived as high words. Poet high or low word depending on the style. It also happens vice versa: Slavicism remained in the language, and the disappeared Russian word perceived as high (helmet/helmet).

2. Alternation of consonants

Slav. Russian

Zhd (alien, clothes) w (alien, clothes)

Щ (night, oven) h (night, oven)

3. The use of participles in -usch, -yushch, -ashch, -yashch.

4. There is no transition e o with softening of the subsequent consonant under stress. For example, sky/sky.

Morphological features Slavisms

1.Shape nominative case male adjectives: oh (rus.f. good) / yy (st.-sl. good).

2.Truncation of adjectives (sleepless, supportive).

3.Shape genitive female nouns: yya (slav.f. wise) / oh (wise).

Declension of nouns according to the paradigms of the Old Church Slavonic language. For example, tows (plural from “eyes”), miracles (plural from “miracle”), sons (instead of “sons”).

Lexical features Slavisms

1. Refers to Slavism a large number of service words.

How long / how long - until when, until then - not yet, if - how much, ugly - after all.

Stylistic functions of Slavicisms

1. Slavonicisms are used to stylize the speech of past times.

2. The use of Slavonicisms in the translation of ancient texts.

3. The comic function of Slavisms (a low subject is spoken of in a high style).

4. Slavonicisms - the professional language of the clergy. A means of characterizing the hero if a priest or pious person is depicted. Picture function professional language can be combined with an ironic function.

Vocabulary that has ceased to be actively used in speech is not immediately forgotten. For some time, obsolete words are still understandable to speakers, they are familiar to them from fiction, although when people communicate, they no longer need them. Such words become part of the vocabulary of the passive stock, they are given in explanatory dictionaries with a note (obsolete). The special emotional and expressive coloring of obsolete words leaves an imprint on their semantics.

Obsolete words included in passive composition language, include historicisms - the names of disappeared objects, phenomena, objects, and archaisms - the names of existing objects and phenomena, supplanted by their more active synonyms.

Historicisms are used mainly in specialized literature, where they perform a nominative function. However, they are also widely used by authors of works of art.

Archaisms in fiction perform a variety of stylistic functions. They, along with historicisms, are used to create the historical flavor of the era, as a means of stylization, in the speech characteristics of the characters. Give speech a touch of pathos and solemnity. Often used to create irony, satire, parody.

Slavic words are also referred to obsolete vocabulary - words of Old Slavonic origin. For example: sweet, captivity, hello. Their productive use is limited to fiction, but they are often found in other functional styles as well. Their main function is to create a special, "Russian" flavor.

Stylistic functions of obsolete words in artistic speech

1. obsolete words as an artistic means of expression

2. archaisms and historicisms are used to recreate the color of distant times

3. archaisms, especially Slavicisms, give speech an elevated, solemn sound

4. outdated vocabulary can become ironic

Errors related to the use of obsolete vocabulary:

1. distortion of the meaning of the word

2. distortion of the grammatical form of the word

3. can give the text a clerical color

4. violation of the lexical compatibility of the word

14. New words. Types of neologisms. Individual stylistic neologisms.

Neologism is a new word formation caused by the absence in the language of a word corresponding to a new phenomenon, concept, sensation.

Types of neologisms:

According to the method of formation: lexical (created according to productive models or borrowed from other languages), semantic (assigning a new meaning to already known words).

According to the conditions of creation: anonymous, individually-author's.

According to the purpose of creation: nominative, stylistic (add a figurative characteristic).

Do they enter the language or are they a fact of speech: linguistic (national), occasional (random, used 1 time): individual stylistic. Individual stylistic neologisms have a number of significant differences from occasionalisms. Occasionalisms are used in colloquial speech mainly in oral communication, individual stylistic neologisms belong to book speech and are fixed in writing. Occasionalisms arise spontaneously, individual stylistic neologisms are created in the process of conscious creativity with a specific stylistic goal.

Individual stylistic neologisms are similar in their artistic significance to tropes. Individual stylistic neologisms do not lose their freshness for a long time. Publicists appreciate the satirical coloring of individual stylistic neologisms. Individual stylistic neologisms are more capacious in meaning than ordinary words. The creation of individual stylistic neologisms may be due to the desire of writers to reflect the originality of a new literary trend by lexical means.

Stylistic functions of neologisms

a) nominative

b) expressive

c) sound color

Errors caused by the use of neologisms

1. Appeal to neologisms should always be stylistically motivated, they should be created in accordance with literary and linguistic norms.

2. From the point of view of word formation, neologisms are considered unsuccessful, in which the requirements of euphony of speech are violated.

3. The sound form of neologism is unacceptable if it causes undesirable associations due to the similarity in the sound of a new word with an already known one.

4. The creation of dissonant, punning neologisms is possible only in an ironic context.

5. A negative stylistic assessment is received by neologisms that have a clerical coloring.