for 4th year students of FFIJ
Syntax as communicative level grammar. The subject of syntax as a section
grammar. Connection of syntax with vocabulary and morphology.
The system of syntactic units. The question of the syntaxeme as the minimal syntactic unit.
The phrase as a syntactic unit. Phrase and word. Phrase and
Phrase classifications. The grammatical meaning of phrases.
Types of grammatical connection in a phrase.
The sentence as the basic syntactic unit. Suggestion signs.
Structural-semantic types of simple sentences.
Basic grammatical categories of the sentence.
Sentence and utterance as units of language and speech. Offer types by goal
statements.
Semantic sentence structure: dictum and modus.
Formal-grammatical structure of the sentence. predictive basis. The concept of
structural diagram of the proposal.
The concept of sentence members as structural-semantic components. Varieties
minor members by the number of connections with other members of the proposal. Semantics
determinants.
Structural-semantic (traditional) classification of secondary members. Syncretism.
The subject, its semantics, ways of expression.
The predicate, its role in the sentence structure. Predicate types.
Types of one-part verbal (personal) sentences. Their functions are in the text.
Impersonal and infinitive sentences. Their structure, semantics and role in the text.
Nominative proposals. Varieties of nominative sentences.
Complete and incomplete sentences. Question about elliptical sentences.
Introductory and insert structures. Appeal, its functions in the text.
The concept of isolation. Separation conditions. Separate members of a sentence with
non-semi-predicative meaning.
The concept of semi-predicativity. Varieties of isolated semi-predicative terms
The concept of homogeneity, indicators of homogeneity. Discharges coordinating conjunctions. Homogeneous and
heterogeneous definitions.
Compound sentence as a syntactic unit. Classification of complex sentences.
Complex sentences. general characteristics BSC, structure, classification.
subordination in a complex sentence (features, varieties, means of communication).
Complex sentences undivided structure.
Complex sentences of dissected structure.
Associative compound sentence. The question of BSP in syntactic science. N.S. Pospelov about
BSP specifics. Means of communication in the BSP.
Structural-semantic types of BSP.
offers. Means of communication in a complex sentence.
Organization of a polynomial complex sentence. Complex syntactic constructions:
Complex syntactic integer. Structure. Types of SSC. STS and paragraph.
Types and means of communication of proposals in the SCS.
Ways of transmitting someone else's speech.
Basic principles of Russian punctuation. Punctuation marks and their functions.
The current division of the proposal. Funds actual articulation. Consistent and
parallel structure of the text.
Word order functions. Word order in phrases and sentences. Inversion. Parceling.
Words and phrases - according to the grammatical rules and laws inherent in a given language - are combined into sentences.<...>
* Vinogradov V.V. Selected works. Studies in Russian grammar. M., 1975. S. 254-294.
A sentence is a grammatically structured given language a holistic (i.e. further indivisible into speech units with the same basic structural features) unit of speech, which is the main means of forming, expressing and communicating thoughts. Language as a tool for communication and exchange of thoughts between all members of society uses the sentence as the main form of communication. The rules for the use of words in the function of sentences and the rules for combining words and phrases in a sentence are the core of the syntax of a particular language. Based on these rules, different types or types of sentences are established that are characteristic of this particular language. The sentence expresses not only a message about reality, but also the attitude of the speaker to it.
Each sentence from a grammatical point of view is an internal unity of its verbally expressed members, the order of their location and intonation.<...>
An analysis of the main grammatical categories found in the structure of a sentence and defining it, for example, the categories of tense, modality, predicative combination of words, etc., shows the specifics of the sentence, its fundamental differences from the judgment, despite its close connection with it. A judgment cannot exist outside of a sentence, which is the form of its formation and expression. But if a judgment is expressed in a sentence, this does not mean that the purpose of any sentence is to express only a judgment.
The type of sentence does not remain fixed. It can have different variants that arise on the basis of modification and subsequent abstraction of certain components of the sentence, on the basis of enrichment and improvement of its structure. Thus, the historically established structure of a nominal two-part (or two-part) sentence primarily varies depending on the composition of the predicate, which can be expressed by different nominal categories (noun, adjective, numeral, pronoun) or an adverb of a nominal type and include a bunch, semi-nominative or semi-auxiliary verb. For example: Cosmopolitanism is nonsense, cosmopolitanism is zero, worse than zero(Turgenev. "Rudin"); All this fell into the storerooms and everything became rotten and tear(Gogol. "Dead Souls"); You will be a hero in appearance and a Cossack in soul(Lermontov. "Cossack lullaby"); She was a freak(Turgenev. "The Nest of Nobles"). Those varieties of nominal sentences that contain the so-called semi-significant verbs of the type to stay - to stay, to be considered, to seem, to appear, to appear, to be called etc., approach the verbal type of the sentence, are verb-nominal.
The composite - nominal and at the same time verbal character is even more pronounced in sentences with a complex predicate, which includes, in combination with a noun or adjective, verbs of movement or state (such as come, return, walk; work, live, sit, lie down etc.). For example: No one is born a hero, Soldiers mature in battle(L. Oshanin. “Soldiers mature in battle”).<...>
The distinction between two basic types of sentences - two-part and one-part - has become firmly established in scientific syntax Russian language.<...>
The question of the forms and types of grammatical construction of one-component sentences needs further in-depth study. It is extremely important to understand the specific features of their structure in relation to the main types of two-part sentences. It goes without saying that it would be impractical to seek to find "subjects" and "predicates" or any of their "equivalents" in all types of one-part sentences. However, in some of their forms, one can find morphological correspondences to one of the main members of a two-part (two-part) sentence. For example, a proposal Hail beat rye is in a synonymous grammatical connection with a two-part sentence The city killed the rye. Therefore beat is perceived as the predicate of a one-part sentence expressed by the impersonal form of the verb. The morphological category of impersonality inherent in the verb, as it were, authorizes a special syntactic form of the predicate, which is not correlative with the subject. Indefinitely personal sentences (They say they ask you not to smoke etc.) and generalized-personal sentences (If you like to ride, love to carry sleds) also functionally-syntactically (in the presence of peculiar semantic and stylistic shades) differ little from two-part concrete-personal verb sentences (cf. I sit and think - I sit and think; You see your mistakes - You see your mistakes etc.). In indefinite personal sentences, the 3rd person plural form of the verb denotes a personal action carried out by an indefinite number, an indefinite set of persons; in generalized personal sentences, the 2nd person form expresses an action associated with a collective person, with any person in general.<...>
We have to admit the existence of such sentences, the purpose of which is not to express a judgment, but to express a question and an impulse as special varieties of thought.<...>
When studying the rules for composing sentences, syntax must first of all find out how words and phrases, combined in the structure of a sentence as its members, form a sentence - this basic syntactic unit of linguistic communication - and what are the characteristic constructive and grammatical features of a sentence. In our domestic grammatical science, two general characteristic features of a sentence in the Russian language have been put forward, although the relationship and interaction of these features have not yet been completely defined. This is the intonation of the message and predicativity, i.e. the relation of the expressed content to reality, manifested in the totality of such grammatical categories that determine and establish the nature of the sentence as the main and at the same time primary grammatically organized unit of speech communication, expressing the speaker's attitude to reality and embodying a relatively complete thought. The presence of both of these features is mandatory for the proposal.
<...>Words and phrases connected in a sentence for the most part by means of the same methods of agreement, control and adjacency that are characteristic of word connections within a phrase, without their appropriate organization by intonational means, do not yet constitute a message. By means of intonational means, the communicative meaning of the words in the sentence is determined, the division of the sentence is determined, and its internal unity is realized. Thanks to intonation, not only the connection of words, but also individual words can acquire the value of offers.<...>It can be doubted that in every sentence, even in a colloquial sentence of a sharply emotional, grammatically undivided nature, such as: Well well! That's it! Vania! Still would! Here's to you! Ah ah ah! etc., a predicative combination of subject and predicate is expressed, but there can be no doubt that the intonation of the message is inherent in these expressions or statements. The intonation of the message, therefore, is an important means of formulating the sentence and acts as one of the constant characteristic features of the sentence. It is in this sign that one of the fundamental differences between a sentence and a phrase lies.
The difference in intonation largely determines the main functional and at the same time modal types of sentences - narrative, interrogative and incentive sentences.<...>
The main intonational means that perform the main functions in the organization of a sentence are stress and melody.<...>Intonation, however, does not exhaust and does not determine the grammatical essence of the sentence and, with its variations, does not determine and does not create the whole variety of types of sentences in the Russian language.<...>
The intonation itself, i.e. outside the verbal content, outside the relation of speech to reality, it does not express a dissected, complete, logically constructed thought. Intonation is not a means of forming and embodying thoughts; without words, it can be expressive, but it is not meaningful, i.e. does not serve as a material shell of thought. It can be said about the intonation of a message that it is only a form of expression of a more or less closed unit of speech (sentence). However, intonation is not at all a form of grammatical construction of a sentence. True, intonation can serve as a means of turning a word and phrase into a sentence, it can perform a predicative function, but intonation does not have a subject-semantic content.<...>In such forms of communication as written speech, intonation often recedes into the background.<...>
The structure of the sentence is associated with its own special syntactic categories, based on morphological categories, but far beyond them: the categories of time and modality, as well as - in a broad syntactic sense - the category of person, i.e. those categories that express the relation of the message to reality and are subsumed under the general concept of "predicativity"; these categories may be characteristic of the sentence as a whole - regardless of the presence of a verb in its composition. So, verbless one-part sentences containing only one single concept or representation, appropriately correlated with reality (for example: Freezing. Quiet! Attention! etc.), are units of speech communication, grammatically organized on the basis of the same categories of modality and tense.
Among single-member (or single-member) sentences in Russian, there are sentences whose function is reduced to a simple affirmation or denial, an expression of agreement or disagreement, or to a general expressive-modal assessment of the previous statement. These are sentences based on affirmative or negative words. Yes and No, modally colored words and particles (such as: is it? hardly! maybe! certainly! probably! etc.), interjections and words close to interjections. The inner essence of the modal function of words like yes, no, definitely etc., is clearly reflected in the fact that sometimes in dialogical speech they become a kind of substitute for the verbal predicate with its inherent meanings of time, person and mood, for example: Did you have a vacation last year? - Last year, yes; Do you agree to stay with your mother? - Yes, with your mother, but no with Petka. However, the word Yes can be part of a complex sentence as one of its main components: - Is there a breeze in the alley? - Yes, because the leaves are trembling; - Do you owe him, or what? - That's my trouble, yes.
Suggestions like yes, no, of course etc., often very expressive, express the modal qualification of the message and sometimes contain an inducement to some action, therefore, they also express the syntactic category of modality.<...>Therefore, modal words-sentences have always been considered as a special type of sentences,<...>not having and not able to have in its composition any members of the proposal - main or secondary. And yet they have modal meanings. Sentences of this type are used mainly in dialogic speech, in response and interrogative remarks of interlocutors. They can, as echoes of an internal dialogue, be used in monologue speech, when confirming what has already been said, when objecting to oneself and in other similar cases.
Here are some illustrations: [Podkolesin] (with a smug smile). And it should be pre-embarrassing, however, if they refuse.[Kochkarev] Still would!(Gogol. "Marriage"); - Well, you have few sins. - Oh, anyway, - Levin said, all the same, - "reading my life with disgust, I tremble and curse, and complain bitterly ..." Yes.(L. Tolstoy. "Anna Karenina").
Thus, the meaning and purpose of the general category of predicativity that forms a sentence is to refer the content of the sentence to reality. This is the difference between the word winter with its characteristic lexical meaning and sentence Winter in this Pushkin verse: Winter. What should we do in the village?<...>
The general grammatical meaning of the relation of the main content of the sentence to reality is concretized in the syntactic categories of modality, as well as tense and person. It is they who give the sentence the meaning of the main means of communication, turning the building material of the language into a living, effective speech.<...>
The relationship of the message contained in the sentence to reality is, first of all, modal relationships. What is communicated can be thought of by the speaker as real, present in the past or in the present, as being realized in the future, as desirable, required from someone, as invalid, etc. The forms of grammatical expression of various kinds of relations between the content of speech and reality constitute the syntactic essence of the category of modality. The category of modality defines the differences between different modal types of sentences. In addition to the forms of verb moods, the category of modality is expressed by modal particles and words, as well as by intonation.<...>The modality of infinitive sentences is determined by the very form of the infinitive and intonation, and is enhanced and differentiated by particles. The modal meanings of these sentences are also characterized by the fact that they denote an action that will take place in the future or should be done by the will of the speaker. For example: [Sofia] Here I would bring you with my aunt, To count all the acquaintances(Griboyedov. "Woe from Wit"); One minute, one more minute to see her, say goodbye, shake her hand(Lermontov. "Princess Mary"); Do not grow grass After autumn; Do not bloom flowers in winter in the snow(Koltsov. "Russian Song"); When is it time to limp? Here, my brother, you are no longer lame(Sholokhov. Quiet Don).
In the so-called infinitive-nominative sentences, the whole sentence is completed by the intonation, which expresses the subjective-modal attitude to the action: Is it possible to! sell me! - Kiss me fool...(Lermontov. "Masquerade"); [Sasha] She became very nervous.[Karenin] Two nights without sleep, without food.[Sasha] (smiling). Yes, you too...[Karenin] I am something else(L. Tolstoy. "The Living Corpse").
The category of time is closely related to the category of modality. The sentence as a form of communication about reality includes the syntactic meaning of time. This meaning is created not only by the forms of the tenses of verbs, short adjectives and the category of state (with the help of a copula), but also by the verb forms of the mood (cf., for example, the connection of the forms of the imperative mood with the verb forms of the future tense), and also - with known intonations - the form infinitive; in messages about the present or about the past, depicted as present, the meaning of time is also expressed by the absence of a morphological form with the grammatical meaning of time. The syntactic meaning of time, created by the situation and the context of speech, is also inherent in such sentences as Fire![meaning: 1) "shoot!", 2) "light fire" or "bring fire!" and 3) “fire is seen”]; Brr!(meaning: "cold" or "I'm cold"); It's time, it's time! Silence. A moment of attention! and etc. In question-answer sentences that make up paired unity, the value of time in the answer is often predetermined by the preceding interrogative sentence.
Since the sentence, as the main form of verbal communication, serves both as a means of expressing thoughts for the speaker and as a means of understanding the expressed thought for the listener, the structure of the sentence includes different ways of expressing the syntactic category of the person.<...>In russian language grammatical category person, associated with the characteristics of the relationship of speech to the speaker (or speakers), to the interlocutor (or interlocutors) and to the third one that can be discussed, is expressed mainly by the forms of pronouns and verbs. In strictly defined types of sentences, the attitude towards a person can also be expressed through special intonations (requirements, motivations, requests, orders or reproaches, desires, etc.). For example: Be a citizen! Serving art, Live for the good of your neighbor(Nekrasov. "Poet and Citizen"); Farewell, free element!(Pushkin. "To the sea"); And, full, what an expense(Krylov. "Demyanova's ear"); Full of lying nonsense(Pushkin. "The Captain's Daughter"); And you, the bride-seekers. Do not bask and do not yawn(Griboyedov. "Woe from Wit"). Wed suggestions like: Thank you. Out! Away! Down with warmongers! Water! etc.
Apparently, the most direct, permanent and immediate expression of the category of predicativity is the modality of the sentence. If predicativity expresses a special relation of speech to reality or the correlation of speech with reality (cf. the word war and suggestions: War! War? War. Devastated fields. Even worse are the ruins of cities), then the category of modality dismembers and differentiates this general function sentences, denoting a specific quality of attitude to reality - on the part of the speaker.
As for the syntactic category of time, it, one way or another, directly or indirectly, makes itself felt in every sentence. But - in the absence of morphological ways of expression - it does not find direct expression in intonation, as a category of modality; in this case, it can be derived from the modality, as if included in it, just as it happens in the forms of the verbal mood, for example, the imperative, which potentially contains a relationship to the objective future tense or the desired present, the subjunctive, which contains the denial of the fact in the past, sometimes emphasizing the unfulfilled possibility of its manifestation, sometimes the desirability of the course of action in the present or its performance in the future, even the infinitive, in which the syntactic meaning of time accordingly follows from the various modal functions of this form.
In connected speech, the relation of a sentence to time may also be determined or expressed by context and situation. For example: Ka-a-k! You bribe me!(Saltykov-Shchedrin. "Provincial essays"); And everywhere on the floor - How much iron is there!(Tvardovsky. “More about Danila”); Oh, the smoke! What a hole!(Bubennov. "White birch"); How to be and how to cope with a neighbor, To stop singing turn him away?(Krylov. "The farmer and the shoemaker"). The category of a person as a structural element of a sentence is potential. It is expressed, in addition to the personal forms of the verb, also by the forms of personal pronouns, for example, the dative case in combination with the infinitive, and in some constructions, for example, infinitive or nominal, adverbial and interjectional with imperative meaning, - intonation. It goes without saying that in the so-called impersonal or subjectless sentences the category of person is found negatively.<...>
Here are some examples of a varied syntactic expression of the 2nd person category: You now, tea, not up to us, Timofei Vasilyevich?(A. Zharov. "Accordion"); You should lie down... What's the matter with you?(Krymov. "Derbent tanker"); Here! Behind me! hurry up! hurry up! More candles, lanterns(Griboyedov. "Woe from Wit").<...>
In every sentence, the category of predicativity finds its full or partial expression. The ways of its expression associated with the syntactic categories of person, tense and modality are morphological, constructive-syntactic and intonational-syntactic.<...> Well you! Good night! "Fire! screaming... fire!”(Krylov. "Wolf in the kennel"); Morning execution(Pushkin. "Poltava"); [Agnia] Weather something! Even amazing! And we are sitting(Ostrovsky. “Not everything is Shrovetide for a cat”); [Unhappy] Where and from where?[Lucky] From Vologda to Kerch-s...(Ostrovsky. "Forest"); [Bakin] However, it's time to get down to business.(Ostrovsky. "Talents and admirers"); At full speed On the side of the sled - and Sasha in the snow!(Nekrasov. "Sasha"); Finally, the carriage is at the porch. Aunts get out of it and bow to their father(Saltykov-Shchedrin. "Poshekhonskaya antiquity"); Citizens, for guns! To arms, citizens! ( Mayakovsky. "Revolution"); [Julia] Where are we going?[Fyodor Ivanovich] To the dam... Let's go for a walk... There is no better place in the whole county... Beauty!(Chekhov. "Leshy"); What courage one must have to, for example, perform operations or cut corpses! Terrible!(Chekhov. "Name day").
A variety of forms and ways of expressing predicativity, different types of combination and interweaving of syntactic categories of time and modality, ample opportunities for expressing the attitude of the speaker to reality through intonations of modal coloring, through the same intonations, the emotional-volitional impact of the speaker on the listener and his emotional-volitional reaction to certain facts, phenomena of reality - all this is found in the variety of concrete linguistic forms (or types) of sentences of the modern Russian language.<...>
The correlative members of the sentence, connected by predicative relations, are the subject expressed by the form nominative case noun or pronoun (as well as a substantiated word), and a predicate expressed by the personal form of the verb, a short form of the participle, an adjective, or other morphological means.
The members of the proposal are syntactic categories, arising in a sentence based on the forms of words and forms of phrases and reflecting the relationship between the structural elements of the sentence. There is a connection and even interaction between the parts of speech and the members of the sentence, but there is no parallelism. The syntactic essence of a word or an indivisible phrase as a member of a sentence is determined by the function that they carry in the structure of the sentence.
In the structure of a sentence, the same form of a word, depending on its relation to other words, can perform the functions of different members of the sentence. It is not always possible to fully comprehend these functions in terms of different types of phrases. Word combinations, entering into the structure of a sentence, are subjected to transformations here. They are grouped around the main constructive centers of the proposal, i.e. around its predicative core. For example, in a sentence This man is smart combination Withmind acts as a predicate. Its syntactic equivalent is the short form of the adjective smart The predicative function of this expression can be directly derived from the attribute function: a man with a mind. However, in the sentence structure A man with a mind will not be lost phrase a man with a mind from a semantic point of view, it is indecomposable and generally performs the function of a subject. One word human as a subject is itself too abstract and vague (cf. A smart person won't disappear and A smart person will not disappear). But cf. individualization of the word human by demonstrative pronoun this and isolation combinations Withmind in a sentence: This man, with intelligence, with talent, with great passions, lived a bright, interesting life. In a sentence FROMconceived by the mind, but done without the mind combination Withmind serves to characterize the action and no longer acts as a definition, but as the so-called circumstance of the mode of action with the predicate. Its synonymous equivalent is the adverb smart. Finally, in a sentence Heart and mind are not in harmony(which is a modification of the well-known Griboyedov's aphorism "The mind is not in harmony with the heart") Withmind acts as a complement, since here it denotes an accomplice of the action, i.e. the object mapped to the subject of the state, to the subject heart.
On the other hand, in dialogic speech there are sentences that are a monosyllabic replica of bright modal coloring, an expressive assessment of the interlocutor's message (for example: Of course! Still would! No matter how! Is it? etc.). This kind of undivided expressive one-word sentences, of course, is not overgrown with other words or members, since the forms syntactic connection here they do not even have a morphological support for themselves. In relation to such sentences, the concept of “members of a sentence” is generally inapplicable.
The grammatical articulation of a two-part (two-member) sentence in Russian is determined (and even predetermined) by the stability of the so-called nominative sentence structure in the family of Indo-European languages. The subject has a well-defined and strictly stable form of expression: it can be expressed in the nominative case of a noun and a subject-personal pronoun (or a substantiated "equivalent" of a name - a word or a whole phrase, for example, in Gogol's "Sorochinsky Fair": - Have you heard what the people say? - he continued with a bump on his forehead, pointing his gloomy eyes askance at him), quantitative-nominal combination, infinitive ( The Rooks Have Arrived; Where are you going? To offend, to deceive him would be both sinful and pitiful.).
<...>The form of the predicate (where it is morphologically possible) is likened to the form of the subject or coordinated with it. Morphological ways of expressing the predicate in the Russian language are very diverse. In the role of a predicate, not only verbs in personal forms, as well as in the form of an infinitive, participle, in isolated cases - gerunds, but also a full and short adjective, a pronoun, a numeral, a noun in the nominative and indirect cases with a preposition and without a preposition, an adverb , interjection. The predicate can be simple and compound or complex; the role of a predicate is often played by whole phraseological phrases, stable phrases, sometimes even complex sentences, for example, in the aphorism attributed to A.P. Chekhov: "Love is when it seems that what is not"(cf. in Y. Trifonov's story "Students": Somewhere in an old writer: "Love is when you want something that does not exist and does not exist." It has always been like this - the Montagues and the Capulets, Madame Bovary, Anna Karenina. For them, love was life, and life was torment. And the tragedy of their suffering is that, fighting for their love, they fought for life. So it was before, in deaf times. “Love is when you want what is not there, but what will definitely be”). <...>
The linguistic form of a sentence is not entirely determined by its grammatical composition - the relationship of the subject and the predicate. In fact, a sentence exists as a certain unity of its composition, intonation and word order. Let's use the simplest example to substantiate and develop this idea. Offer The train has come fraught with the possibility of different comprehension, if you change the order of words and vary the so-called logical stress. So, The train has come(with emphasis on the grammatical predicate) - this is a message about the arrival of the train; The train has come(with emphasis on the subject) - this is a message that it was the train that came. When words are rearranged, new shades appear: The train came(some kind of train, which was not discussed, which was not expected); The train came(the one that is needed, which was expected).<...>
The essence of logical stress is to emphasize a particular word or phrase in this proposal. <...>Any word of a sentence (or a whole phrase - with its intonational emphasis), bearing a logical stress, can become a predicate, a predicate.<...>With the appropriate use of intonational means, a logical (or psychological) predicate can be expressed by any word of the sentence. This is connected with the possibility of expressing a number of thoughts, sometimes completely different, through the same lexical-syntactic composition of the sentence. When the logical stress is shifted, the same “formal-grammatical sentence” is divided in different ways into parts that differ in degree of importance, “novelty” of the message: one of these parts expresses the given, already known content thoughts, the other - expresses the new, discovered and communicated in speech. The stressed part of the sentence becomes its most important member in this connection and in the given situation, the verbal expression of a logical or psychological predicate (“psychological predicate”), and all other members of the sentence must express the subject (or subject) in relation to this predicate. From this point of view, the grammatical doctrine of the main and secondary members of a sentence establishes only an external, formal scheme for the structure of a sentence, since the subjects and predicates of different judgments find different expressions in the same sentence. So, for example, it is indicated that thanks to the stress, the complement with its attributes can become the expression of a predicate.<...>
There are noteworthy attempts to free the study of the corresponding range of phenomena from bare formal logical interpretation. Thus, the Czech linguist V. Mathesius proposed to distinguish between the general formal-grammatical, structural division of a sentence and its “actual division”, expressing the immediate, specific meaning of this sentence in the corresponding context or situation.<...>In the case of actual division, one should first of all single out the “starting point” or “basis” of the statement, i.e. what is known or at least obvious in a given situation, in given conditions of communication, speech, and from what the speaker proceeds, and the "core of the statement", i.e. what the speaker says in connection with or in relation to the "starting point". Connections of the same sentence in its formal structure with specific situation and context can be very different. Therefore, depending on the difference in possible situations and context, the actual division of the sentence can be very diverse. Very often, these differences in understanding the same sentence are expressed in variations in the order of words, and, accordingly, in the order in which the basis and core of the statement follow each other. In a declarative sentence, word order is common, beginning with a statement of the basis (i.e., what is known) and moving towards the core of the statement; this order can be called objective. But when - due to a specific emotional motivation (due to excitement, internal interest of the speaker, his desire to emphasize something, etc.) - it becomes necessary to grammatically express the emotion, the attitude of the speaker to the subject of the message, then a subjective word order is formed. In this case, the speaker starts with the core of the utterance and only then adds its stem, revealing the connection with the situation or context only at the very end of the speech. Such a subjective order of word arrangement, placement of the core of the statement and its basis is normal in interrogative, motivating and exclamatory sentences. Actual articulation is the main factor that determines the order of words in a sentence, as well as its division into intonation-semantic groups.<...>
According to this view, the different semantic load of the sentence members, expressed by word order, logical stress, etc., lies in the fact that they denote either something given, known to the listener, serving as the starting point of the statement, or something reported as new, the main thing in the statement; new - this is what the message is made for - its meaning, purpose.<...>
The main principle of the usual word arrangement in calm business speech is to put in the first place a member of the sentence (or a group of them) that expresses the given, and after it what is reported as new. However, in the language quite often there are deviations from such a word arrangement, the essence of which is that the new precedes the given. This achieves a stronger emphasis on the new, therefore, greater expressiveness of speech. This word order is especially typical for emotionally colored speech, and is also used as an emphatic device for stylistic purposes. Such an emphatic word order can be not only reverse, but also direct, if the subject expresses not the given, but the new. Wed They had misfortune and They had a misfortune etc.<...>
The subject and predicate as the main members of the sentence are opposed to the secondary ones: definition, addition and circumstance.<...>
In the secondary members of the sentence, as it were, those various grammatical relations that are found between words in the structure of phrases are synthesized, generalized by function. In the structure of a sentence, phrases are connected and lined up in a strictly defined hierarchical perspective. Serving to explain the main members of the sentence - the subject and the predicate, the secondary members can, in turn, be determined and supplemented by the secondary members explaining them themselves. For example: Through the wavy mists The moon makes its way, On the sad glades She pours a sad light(Pushkin. "Winter road"); In the languor of hopeless sadness, In the anxieties of the noisy bustle, A gentle voice sounded to me for a long time, And I dreamed of sweet features(Pushkin. "To A.P. Kern"); Tired of long storms, I did not at all listen to Buzzing distant reproaches and praises.(Pushkin. "The Desire of Glory").<...>
The syntactic features of the secondary members of the sentence are formed and developed on the basis of firmly established morphological categories and their functional and syntactic complication in the system of different types of phrases. This is how the category of definition was established, the morphological core of which was qualitative and relative adjectives. The morphological foundations of the complement category are no less definite: the forms and functions of indirect cases of nouns and pronouns in cases where the objective meaning of the name is not absorbed by shades of attributive and adverbial character and does not dissolve in them. The morphological basis of the syntactic category of circumstance is formed by the adverb and forms of indirect cases of nouns functionally close to them (usually with a preposition), when the meanings of circumstantial relations are fixed in them.<...>
In the speech social practice of conversational exchange of thoughts, in connection with a specific situation, in the presence of facial expressions and gestures as auxiliary expressive means, with a great expressive power of intonations, such structural types of sentences are formed in which there is no verbal expression of any individual members that are clear from the context and situations. For example: There is not a single soul in the hallway. He is in the hall; next: no one(Pushkin. "Eugene Onegin"); [Osip] Where is it?[Bear] Here, uncle, here(Gogol. "Inspector"); [Khlestakov] Like, only two dishes?[Servant] Only with(ibid.); - And what faculty are you at? - she asked the student. - At the medical(Chekhov. "Name Day"); - Hot water! he says to her as they walk. - And a clean bathrobe, and you will wash this one today(Panova. "Satellites").
Such sentences, in the verbal fabric of which one or more members are “missing”, are usually called incomplete. However, most often such sentences cannot be grammatically completed without violating the syntactic norms of the modern Russian language.<...>When all means of expression, situation and context are taken into account, when structural and grammatical features of the so-called incomplete sentences are taken into account, almost every one of them will turn out to be "complete", i.e. adequate to its purpose and appropriately fulfilling its communicative function.<...>
In the syntax of the Russian language, a simple sentence and a complex sentence are usually distinguished. In fact, what is called a simple sentence is sometimes a very complex structure. A simple sentence has not only various forms of its construction, different types, but it can be complicated by the presence of isolated and homogeneous members.
Homogeneous are those members of a sentence expressed in separate words or whole phrases that not only perform the same syntactic function as part of a given sentence, but are also united by the same relationship or the same belonging to the same member of the sentence.
For example, in a sentence During the day, dry, fine snow fell on the frozen ground ...(Bitter. "Mother") adjectives dry and small, each of which is directly related to the word snow as its definition, are homogeneous definitions. In a sentence Large, wet snow swirls lazily around freshly lit lanterns and lies in a thin, soft layer on roofs, horses' backs, shoulders, hats.(Chekhov. "Tosca") nouns standing in the accusative case ( on the)roofs,(equine)backs, shoulders, hats form a group of homogeneous complements that are in the same syntactic relation to the predicate lies down(for something).
Homogeneous members of the proposal may not be combined into a single sequential chain of enumeration, but may be located in groups united through unions.
The main ways of expressing the homogeneity of the sentence members are coordinative connection(through connecting, dividing, adversative and comparative unions), enumeration intonation and connecting pauses.
For example: The ocean walked before my eyes and swayed, and thundered, and sparkled, and faded, and shone, and went somewhere to infinity.(Korolenko. "Without language"); The forest rang, groaned, crackled(Nekrasov. "Sasha").
A simple sentence, regardless of the presence of homogeneous members in it, is united by the generality, the unity of its predicative core. After all, even in a sentence with several homogeneous predicates, these predicates refer to a single subject common to all of them. The difference between simple and complex sentences is structural. A simple sentence is organized by single concentration forms of expression of the categories of time, modality and person; in a complex sentence can be somewhat organically bound friend with other constructive centers of this kind.
The internal unity of thought, expressed by a complex sentence with the help of intonation, as well as means of syntactic connection, welds these parts into one syntactic whole, into the unity of the sentence. A complex sentence as a whole has a meaning that is not derived from a simple sum of the meanings of its parts, which are close in their construction to simple sentences.
The building material for a complex sentence is not a word or a phrase, but a simple sentence. A complex sentence is a sentence that represents a single intonational and semantic whole, but consists of such parts (two or more) that, in their external, formal grammatical structure, are more or less the same type as simple sentences. Although the parts of a complex sentence are similar in external structure to simple sentences, but as part of the whole they do not have the semantic and intonational completeness characteristic of the sentence category, and, therefore, do not form separate sentences.
For example, Chekhov's story "Rothschild's Violin" begins with such a complex sentence, which is composed of four parts connected by conjunctions and allied words, and which forms a single semantic and intonational whole: The town was small, worse than the village, | and almost only old people lived in it, | | who died so rarely, | which is even annoying.<-..>
As a way of initial orientation, one can use the traditional division of complex sentences into compound, compound and non-union.<...>
Compound sentences are called complex sentences, the parts of which are united with the help of unions by relations connecting, comparative, dividing or adversative. Despite the apparent equality of the parts, they form a structural-syntactic and semantic unity in which the individual parts are interdependent. A means of communication and at the same time interdependence separate parts compound sentences are coordinating conjunctions, intonation, as well as the structural relationship of these parts.<...>
1) In the distance, the windmill still flaps its wings, and it still looks like a little man waving his arms.(Chekhov. "Steppe").
In addition to the common tense forms in both sentences, the connection of the parts is also established by the use of the pronoun she is in the second sentence and correlative parallelism of words and phrases: still flapping its wings - still... looks like... a little man waving his arms. Wed Days passed after days, and every day was like the previous one.(Dostoevsky. "Poor people").
2) You were always hard on me and you were fair...(Turgenev. "Rudin").
3) If there is a hint of a causal relationship: I realized that I was a child in her eyes - and it became very hard for me!(Turgenev. "First love"). Wed different ratio of the main parts: It became stuffy in the sakla, and I went out into the air to freshen up.(Lermontov. "Bela").
In a complex sentence I realized that I was a child in her eyes - and it became very hard for me! an impersonal sentence expresses a state as a consequence of what is reported in the first part of the complex sentence. The past tense forms of the perfect form, found in both parts of a complex sentence, express a sequence of events.
In a complex sentence It became stuffy in the sakla, and I went out into the air to freshen up. the impersonal offer is brought to the fore. It informs about the onset of stuffiness, as a result of which the hero left the sakli.
Thus, structurally, the parts of these complex sentences are of the same type, but their position, their order in the composition of the whole can change.
The parallelism of the structure of both parts of the complex sentence, connected by the union a, in the presence of lexically coinciding elements, but with the absence in the second part of the complex sentence of any member of the sentence already named in the first. For example:
Three girls ran in one door, and the valet in another(Pushkin. "The Queen of Spades"); Katerina Ivanovna with her grouchy husband went to her room, and her daughter went to her(Lermontov. "Princess Ligovskaya"); [Mykin] A single man thinks about service, and a married man thinks about his wife(A. Ostrovsky. "Profitable place"); Yegorushka looked at him for a long time, and he looked at Yegorushka.(Chekhov. "Steppe").<...>
In complex sentences, parts are combined by subordinating conjunctions, relative pronouns and pronominal adverbs, intonation of sequential rise and fall, as well as the ratio of tense forms, less often - inclination or correlation of other members.
<...>Let us take as the simplest example complex sentences with relative subordination of the attributive meaning. The diversity of their types is due not only to differences in the meanings of the defining parts associated with different relative words - which, what, what, whose etc. and with correlative indexes - such, that etc. It is also due to different types of correlative forms of time in parts of a complex sentence. For example: The sea slept with a healthy, sound sleep of a worker who was very tired during the day.(Gorky. "Chelkash"). (cf. The sea was sleeping healthy sleep an employee who gets very tired during the day.);It was a typical Donetsk city, whose life without a factory is meaningless and impossible.(V. Popov. "Steel and Slag"). (cf. It was a typical Donetsk city, whose life without a factory was meaningless and impossible.)
In addition, from complex sentences of this type with purely attributive parts, one should decisively separate those in which the part introduced by the relative pronoun performs not a determinative, but a spreading-narrative function. Here, somewhat different principles of the correlation of the forms of time are usually found, and some peculiarities in the structure of the second part. Indicative in this case is the impossibility of using a demonstrative pronoun in the first part. For example: ... I sat on my good horse, and Savelich on a skinny and lame horse, which one of the city dwellers gave him for free ...(Pushkin. "The Captain's Daughter"). If it were said: on t y a skinny and lame horse, which one of the city dwellers gave him for free, then the meaning would be different, definitive: there would be an indication of the already known, previously mentioned horse, with which some episodes in the previous narrative were associated; past tense form gave would have received the meaning of the past ("once, once gave"). Pronoun that serves to indicate a specific, single, isolated from a number of other objects.
Wed other types of relative subordinating constructions with a distributive-narrative meaning: I took her question seriously and told her the procedure, at the end of which the doors of the temple of science should open before me.(Gorky. "My Universities"); Today I met a wonderful artist who speaks with his eyes, mouth, tip of his nose and fingers, barely noticeable movements, turns(Stanislavsky. "The work of an actor on himself"). Wed Today I met a wonderful artist: he speaks with his eyes, mouth, ears...
It is curious that for both types of these complex sentences with relative subordination, synonymous constructions of simple sentences with participial phrases are possible.<...>
Along with this, in the system of complex sentences there are such sentences in which both parts are not only mutually subordinate, but, as it were, phraseologically connected. Sentences of this type include allied phraseological combinations that form the backbone of a sentence and determine the scheme of its syntactic construction. The phraseological units underlying such structures are disconnected (“distant”): one part of them is placed in the first part of a complex sentence, usually at the beginning of it, the other begins the second part. For example: He called the commander and did not have time to utter two words, as something scorching scalded his shoulder.(Vs. Ivanov. "Parkhomenko"). Wed also complex sentences based on phraseological combinations: didn't go like...;cost... like... and etc.
Thus, the structural types of complex sentences are very diverse.<...>
- Typology of errors in students' written work
Speech errors- errors in the use, functioning of language means.
Grammatical errors- errors in the structure, in the form of a language unit.
Speech errors - This is a violation of the requirements of the correctness of speech, norms literary language(= you can't say that).
Speech defects - violation of the requirement of communicative expediency of speech, violation of recommendations related to the concept of good speech (rich, precise, expressive) (= you can put it that way, but there is a better option).
Unlike a grammatical error that violates the structure of a language unit, a speech defect is associated with an unsuccessful use of the correct formed words or suggestions. This is a functional error (in use), not a structural one (in education). To detect a speech defect, a context is needed; without it, it is impossible to notice an error in use, since the language unit itself is composed, formed correctly.
Logic errors
Logical errors are associated with errors in the logic of presentation.
I. Violation of a clear order of thoughts and parts of the work in the absence of an internal plan:
Inappropriate and obsessive repetition of the same position;
Duplication of interpretations and conclusions;
Offset of microthemes;
Unmotivated juxtaposition of various parts of the work;
Students' inattention to the selection of a paragraph;
The inability to use the red line to reflect and design the logical and compositional division of the constructed text.
II. Logic pass:
Lack of connection between thoughts; - inept transition from one position to another; - unmarked connection of various subtopics.
Difficulties in parsing
Intonation is the same legal way of expression in the language syntactic meanings as well as word order. Never refuse to read a sentence or text, even to yourself, in order to see its semantic boundaries, for the purpose of general familiarization with its content and syntactic construction. Most acceptable form implementation of such a reading - submission of a proposal speech beats, or syntagmas.
Syntagmas in the language are not fixed in a certain way, such as phrases formed as a result of the semantic-syntactic distribution of words. Syntagms arise by themselves in the process of speech. Their selection in the text is determined by the system of the language, prompted by social-individual speech practice, and occurs rather intuitively, gradually, than according to strict language rules. Hence the conclusion about the need for preliminary reflections on the text or sentence in order to identify the most probable volume of syntagmas.
The text itself (its content, syntactic structure and rhythmic melodics) suggests the boundaries of speech measures: Near the seaside / green oak; // a golden chain / on that oak: // both day and night / a learned cat / keeps walking / around the chain; // goes to the right - / starts the song, / to the left - / tells a fairy tale //.(A. Pushkin.) One oblique line separates syntagmas, two lines - phrases as larger units relatively complete in meaning. A different division will complicate, moreover, make the connection of words unperceivable, unnatural.
One more variant of division can be suggested this passage into syntagmas - due to the enlargement of syntagmas: Near the seaside, the oak is green; / a golden chain on an oak tree: / day and night a scientist cat / everything walks around the chain / ...
If we look at syntagmas from the point of view of syntax, then, perhaps, we can predict more or less probable combinations of words, components of a verbal character and phrases that can be perceived as speech measures. Syntagmatic groups (or rows) in a stream of connected speech can make up, for example, a subject with a predicate, located side by side ( the dawn rises), a definition with the defined word ( in the cold mist), a syntactically indivisible phrase ( grandfather with mother), a verb-predicate with its propagating circumstance ( went ahead of everyone), not very common isolated member (another room, / almost twice as large, / was called the hall), phraseological turn (I feel like / in seventh heaven /). It is more difficult to establish syntagmas in a text with homogeneous members, perhaps because the syntagmatic pause in this case is crossed by the enumeration intonation. In addition, rows of words related by the method of composition are more difficult to fix in memory. Therefore, it is advisable to single out each of the homogeneous members as a separate syntagma: He retained / and the sparkle of azure eyes, / and sonorous children's laughter, / and living speech, / and proud faith in people, / and a different life.(M. Lermontov.)
As you can see, syntagma is both a word and a phrase, and a longer segment of speech, united by meaning, syntactically and intonation.
(Based on the materials of A.S. Brovko Difficulties parsing. Kyiv "Osvita", 1991. - from 70-71)
Three main ways of connecting words in a phrase
Agreed application and compound nominal predicate
Distinguish nominal part compound nominal predicate from an agreed application (single and common)
This cliff is a giant. A giant cliff looms over the river.
To distinguish between such cases, you should remember: 
One-part and two-part sentences
The subject and predicate form the grammatical center, grammatical basis suggestions. Offers, grammatical basis which consists of both main members, are called two-part.
However, there are also such sentences, the grammatical basis of which consists of one main member - either the predicate or the subject. Sentences whose grammatical basis consists of one main member are called one-piece.
- Ways of expressing the subject and the main types of the predicate
Synonyms of complex and simple sentences
Below are examples of simple compound sentences that are synonymous with complex sentences placed under simple ones. Compare the examples in pairs. First, if you compare them, you will see that synonymous relationships are possible between them. Secondly, a subordinate clause as part of a complex one is always more independent than a turnover complicating a simple sentence.
Simple sentence
1. Book taken by you in the library, must you please.
2. Becoming a librarian Viktor Petrovich primarily brought catalog order.
3. After reading this book You'll get great pleasure.
4. I didn't manage to get subscription and was forced to do in the reading room.
Difficult sentence
1. Book, which you took in library, must you please.
2. When Viktor Petrovich became librarian he primarily brought catalog order.
3. If a you will read this book, then get great pleasure.
4. I did not make it in time get a subscription, so was forced to do in the reading room.
As a result of comparing the corresponding sample examples, you will notice stylistic differences (simple sentences with private adverbial phrases are more bookish, sentences with homogeneous predicates- more colloquial than the corresponding complex sentences).
Synonyms of personal and impersonal sentences
impersonal proposals- sentences that do not and cannot have a subject, for example: Already quite it dawned (L. T.); His shivered (L. T.); Outside deserted (S.-SH.); Here so stuffy (P.); To you not to see such battles!(L.).
As can be seen from the examples, the predicate of impersonal sentences can be expressed by different parts of speech. Most often it is expressed impersonal verbs (it dawned, it shivered, it dawned) and adverbs in -about, denoting a state ( stuffy, deserted).
Exercise 1.
Replace personal sentences with impersonal ones. Underline the main members of the sentence. Pay attention to how the meaning of the statement changes as a result of the replacement.
Sample:
Snow covered the road. - Snow covered the road.
1. A thick and bitter smell of shag smoke hit the nostrils (Shol.). 2. The storm ripped off the nets set by the fishermen under the shore and carried them out to sea (Sob.). 3. The incessant wind blew dry snow from the ice (Paust.).
Task 2.
Read the sentences. Come up with an opposite meaning for each of them: for the affirmative - negative, for the negative - affirmative. Write the sentences in pairs, in brackets indicate whether the sentence is two-part or one-part. Underline the main terms.
Sample
There is someone in the room (two-part). - There is no one in the room (one-piece).
1. I had a vacation. 2. There was no dew in the morning. 3. We didn't have a thunderstorm. 4. It was frosty at night. 5. There were no mushrooms in the forest this summer. 6. There was a good harvest last year.
Syntax assignments in KIMs USE
In part A (the first part of KIMs), let's pay attention to task A 5 (in the draft KIMs of 2009, also to task A4) The task sounds like this: indicate the grammatically correct continuation of the sentence.
Working on a review
1) the main idea not immediately determined.
2) the student gave an assessment of what they read.
3) the artistic originality of the text is analyzed.
4) do not replace the assessment of the text with a retelling of the content.
In order to build a correct sentence, reason as follows: what is the main action? Who performs the main action? What is the additional action? Let's answer the first question: what is the main action? The correct answer is number 4: don't change - main action . What subject is it performed by? Supposed to be, may be subject you. This is the supposed subject you " performs the main action - don't change.. And the additional action working. The ratio of the main and additional actions is easy to determine by the phrase: The ruble fell, ringing and bouncing. What is the main action of the subject? What did Piglet do? Fell. What about additional action? Ringing and bouncing.
In order not to be mistaken in right choice sentence structures, read on page 117 the article " Approaching this station ... my hat flew off"[D.E.Rosenthal. And how to say it better? M., Enlightenment.-1988.-S. 176]
This phrase - a parody (from a humorous story by A.P. Chekhov) suffers not only from spelling illiteracy ("this instead of this), but also stylistic helplessness: it violates the rule that the action denoted by the participle refers to the subject. In the given example we are talking about the actions of two objects in the grammatical meaning of this word: about me (I drove up to the station) and about the hat (it fell off). AT wrong construction this sentence is easy to verify if you rearrange the adverbial turnover, which is usually freely located in the phrase: "Hat. Approaching this station, I fell off."
Compare also misuse verbal participles in sentences: "Waving goodbye to friends, one of them said to me ..."; "Returning home, I was overtaken by rain." Examples from student works: "Living and moving in an aristocratic society, Onegin created the skills, habits and views inherent in this society"; "Reading these lines from the novel How the Steel Was Tempered, one gets the impression that the author expresses our thoughts and feelings" and etc. In such cases, adverbial phrases should be replaced by adverbial clauses.
Encountered by writers - classics deviations from literary norm are either gallicisms (turnovers that arose under the influence of the French language, where such constructions are permissible), or the result of influence folk speech). For example:... Having the right to choose weapons, his life was in my hands(A.S. Pushkin); Passing on the way back for the first time in spring the familiar birch grove, my head began to spin and my heart began to beat from a vague sweet expectation.(I.S. Turgenev).
Participles are not used in impersonal sentences like "Approaching the forest, I got cold" (this sentence has a logical subject to me, but no grammatical subject, to which one could attribute an action expressed by a gerund). Therefore, sentences like the following are considered obsolete: ... Convinced that he could not understand this, he became bored(L.N. Tolstoy); After reading the story carefully, I think that there are no editorial amendments in it.(M. Gorky).
Possible use participle turnover in an impersonal sentence with an indefinite form of the verb, for example: Performing this exercise, you need to be guided by the instructions given in the task.
Difficult syntax question
Let us know which questions in this section are difficult for you!
For example:
- How to distinguish between unions and allied words?
Answer: union word, unlike the union, not only serves as a means of communication between the subordinate clause and the main one, but at the same time is a member subordinate clause; the union only connects sentences, but is not a member of the sentence, for example: Convoy ... started off, when the sun was setting (Chekhov) (union); I dont know, when father will return (union word).
- How to put punctuation marks in direct speech accompanied by author's words, for example: - You say: "Forgive me!" Did he turn to his brother?
Answer: As you know, direct speech can (optionally) be distinguished using two characters - quotation marks and a dash. This option should be used in this case. It is more expedient to highlight the first direct speech with a dash, and the second with quotation marks, and then the spelling will take the following form:
- You say: "Forgive me!" he turned to his brother.
This eliminates the repetition of quotation marks, in which closing quotation marks (unless they are given a different external design, which is not used in ordinary writing) simultaneously serve as an indication of the end of the first and second direct speech.
However, there is some inconvenience with this variant of punctuation: the text can be understood in such a way that the author's words he turned to his brother
Syntax is a word of Greek origin, translated “together”, “at the same time”, “construction, arrangement”. Thus, this is the doctrine of juxtaposition, the construction of language forms in the form of a connected text.
Grammar = syntax (phrase, sentence) + morphology (word).
The word is a lexical and morphological unit. a phrase and a sentence are more complex syntactical structures that have the ability to unlimited complication.
Morphology is the study of paradigm in language (inflection). Syntax is the doctrine of syntagmatics ( compatibility), laws of association of different forms.
^ Syntactic paradigmatics - a set of syntactic units united by interchangeability or interchangeability relations. (I am sick / I am in pain).
Basic concepts of syntax:
syntactic position. There is only one definite syntactical position for the definite form in the sentence. (Sasha saw Katya, incompatibility).
Syntactic relations are relations of coordination (correlation). Subject and predicate - there is no main thing, they coordinate.
Composition relations (equality).
Relations of subordination (dependence).
Hierarchy as a type of relationship, inclusion relationship, one level is included in another, more complex. + relationships of subordination (relations of one-man command), the vertex node and the dependent node.
Syntax dependency
^ 4 aspects of syntax.
1) Formal-structural(refers to the plan of expression). Categories of syntactic form (simple/complex, types of clauses, etc.).
2) ^ Semantic aspect . From a content point of view, in the syntactic structure, a surface structure (form structure) and a deep structure (subtextual meaning, author's intentions) are distinguished. From the point of view of semantic syntax, the sentence performs a nominative function, which is also a name. Proposition - constitutes the structure and meaning of the situation. In each sentence, 2 types of nominative meaning proposition(that part of the meaning that conveys the state of affairs in the world, the objective content of the sentence) and mode(that part of the meaning that shows the attitude of the speaker to the reported, the subjective beginning). Mode: explicated (verbalized) + non-explicited (non-verbalized).
^ Types of explicit modes : 1) perceptual (sensory perception); 2) mental (intellectual, mode of believing, doubts, knowledge, ignorance, assessment societies). 3) emative (emotions); 4) volitional (expression of will) 5) verbal-thinking action.
^ Elements of the semantic structure of the sentence: agent-producer of action; predicate - what is reported about the subject of speech; object - an element of action, situation, what the action is aimed at; instrumental - instrument of action; mediative - with the help of which, means; destination; the counterparty is a participant in a symmetrical relationship.
3) ^ Communicative aspect . The actual articulation of speech is implied, the theme-rhematic articulation.
4) Pragmatic aspect. The subject of the characteristic is the communicative goal, for which we pronounce. The foundation- speech act theory, the idea of John Austin, Searle monograph - 2 Speech acts", Arutyunova, Zvegintsev. The subject of analysis is a sentence in a pronunciation situation. The means of constructing an utterance are analyzed - the locutionary aspect (the language of the unit). The goal of analysis is the illocutionary aspect, the result is the perlocutionary aspect.
^ Typology of illocutionary meanings : question, answer, informing, warning, criticism, threat, assurance.
Speech acts: 1. Direct (rough, evaluative, categorical). 2. indirect.
2 Phrase
Syntactic Union significant words
- subordinating connection of these famous words
- nominative function (this is not a communicative unit)
phrase - gram unity formed by combining two or more words belonging to the famous parts of speech and serving as the designation of a single undivided concept or idea.
Red pencil - double sentence = e Red pencil - phrase
In the first case, word order conveys such a characteristic as predicativity. In the second case, the sign is not related to real time, its manifestation and location.
In the first case - a specific object in a specific time (here and now).
The lack of predicativity deprives the phrase of communicativeness.
The phrase and the word (word form) bring together the trace of the holy:
1. not a communicative unit, enters into speech only as part of a sentence
2. has no predicative meanings, intonation of the message
3. acts as a nominative means of language
4. has a system of forms, and the initial form, which is set by initial form main word
differences:
more complex word structure
includes at least 2 famous words (main or pivotal and dependent), formed on the basis of subordinating connections
the phrase is included in the sentence by means of its main word, which in the sentence can be a dependent word of another phrase
unlike words, they give a detailed name of objects and phenomena, while limiting their circle by indicating one or another distinguishes saints
op-e mean and tale: "The earth is round"
writing essay, i.e. homogeneous rows: "Cheerful, cheerful"
a paired combination of words that forms a composite nomination: father and mother (parents), day and night (day)
op-e el-tov, between which semi-predicative relations arise (noun-mean + participial / gerund turn): “The house towering outside the window blocks the sun” = the house rises outside the window.
Connecting structure: “I had to make sure of this, and soon"- the connecting part of the information, which is additional to the main content of the sentence. (attachment relationship)
Shakhmatov - a parallel point of view: a word-word does not exist as a self-unit; any combination of words - a phrase; the term collocation has a broader meaning.
Should we distinguish between a sentence and a phrase as syntactic units?
In writings Shcherby, Shakhmatova the need to distinguish between them is outlined.
At Fartunatova they are considered in the same row: complete (sentences) and unfinished phrases.
Trubetskoy says that there are predicative (prepositional) and non-predicative (phrasal) syntaxemes.
Peshkovsky also includes single-word constructions as phrases.
^ Classification of phrases by character syntactic relations:
attributive- relations in which an object, a phenomenon is determined from the side of its external or internal quality, sv-va, belonging.
Attribute-qualitative value ( hard work, porcelain teapot)
Attributive-quantitative (second number, two friends)
Attributive-subjective (singing of the artist, clanging of wheels)
Attributive-possessive (fox tail, my house, grandfather's house)
Attributive-objective (defence of the fatherland, the price of bread)
Attributive-temporal (a trip in winter, a habit from childhood)
Otributively-targeted (drawing table, cough suppressant)
Object- the relationship between the action, state or sign called in the word and the object to which the action is directed or associated.
object of direct action application (build a house, dig garden beds)
The object of desire, search, achievement, removal (to crave happiness, wish good luck, be afraid of meeting)
Object of coverage (eat berries, drink water)
Object of speech perception (talking to a friend)
Object of emotional relationship (enjoy music, enjoy spring)
Object-tool (write with a pen, dig with a paw)
Destination object (write to mother, give to child)
circumstantial- rel-I, in which the action, state or sign is determined by its quality or the conditions for its manifestation
qualitative circumstantial value (look closely, look with regret)
measures and quantities (weigh per kilogram, cost one hundred rubles)
spatial (rest in the village, turn right)
temporary (study from childhood, sit until dark)
causal (cry for joy, say rashly)
targeted (to do it in spite of, to say in justification)
conditions (implement if funds are available, flee in case of flood)
concessive (to walk despite the rain, to clear up contrary to the prediction)
replenishing rel-I (to be known as an eccentric)
the dependent word is expressed as a noun in R.p.
R.p. with the meaning of the subject (birdsong (= bird song), thunderclap)
R.p. chatsi of the whole (mountain top (=mountain peak), chair leg)
R.p. supplies (student notebook = student notebook)
R.p. definitive (man of feat = heroic man)
R.p. in an object function, i.e. the object to which the action is directed (reading a book)
Relative of the subject to the head (factory director)
R.p. content (purpose of travel)
Complementary relationships (replenishing) -
ratios, measures, quantities (a basket of flowers, a kilogram of flour)
dependent word vyr-but existent in Tv.p .:
defining relations
the value of the accompanying feature (hair with gray hair - gray hair)
object relations
etc. compatibility (cat with kittens)
etc. spreads a verbal noun (dispute with a neighbor)
Connection:
Mandatory - the absence of a dependent word creates structural and semantic incompleteness
Optional - the dependent component is optional
Coordination- the species will subordinate the connection, which is expressed by likening the form of the dependent word to the form of the core word in gender, number and case.
Word order is the preposition of the dependent word.
Substantive connection (core word - noun \ substantiated word (tasty second)
Approval:
Complete (in gender, number and case) - beautiful girls
Incomplete (not all gram forms are likened): our doctor \ appendix.
Control- the view will subordinate the connection, which is expressed by joining the main word of the existent in the cos case with or without a preposition (to build a house capable of a feat, a walk in the forest, secretly from parents)
Distinguish management:
verb: to make jam
Substantive: playing with fire
Adjective: visible from above
Pronominal: someone in white, someone you know
Numerical: two houses, five days
Adverb: long before dawn, up the path
Impersonal-predicative: sorry for a friend
Comparative: long before dawn, above the head
Word order - postposition of the head of the word
Control:
Strong - a necessary connection between the case form of the name and the dictionary or gram form of the verb (to move down the mountain, angry at everyone, alone with yourself):
cases with transverbs or direct control (V.p. without preposition)
R.p. parts (drink milk, read a book)
R.p. denial (not loving a friend)
the preposition repeats the prefix of the verb (to reach the forest, get down from the tree)
numerative (three boys)
Weak - the connection is not necessary, with the cat heading the case is not mandatory and the lexical or grammar of the control words is not predicted (come for things, harm to health, invitation to dinner)
adjoining- the view will subordinate the connections, with the cat as dependent components are invariable words and word forms, for example:
adverb: turn right
infinitive: ask to come
adverb: to walk breathlessly
comparative: work better
indeclinable adj: flared skirt
As part of the adjunction, phrases are distinguished:
verb: sleep soundly
substantive: sideways hat
adjective: friendly caring
primatively: twice two, third from left
with impersonal predicative words: it's a pity, you need it desperately
Distinguish adjoining:
strong: he weighed a lot - obligatory distribution
weak: he reacted very joyfully - no obligation to spread
concurrency (application)- appositive combinations, consisting of two entities that have the same case form. (winter sorceress, old hunter, Russula mushroom, female astronaut, Gorki village, boy-woman, unfortunate hotonik, a girl named Katya).
nominal:
substantive (warm day, the roof of the house, an old man with glasses, a date alone, a desire to please)
adjectives (red with embarrassment, very inquisitive, well-known, white spotted)
with a numeral as the main word (two students, two friends, the first on the list)
with a pronoun as the main word (one of the students, someone else, any of the listeners)
verbal (read a book, read aloud, want to travel, speak smiling)
adverbial (adverbial): very cheerful, far from relatives
with sks as the main word (hurt my hand, I'm sad)
Simple phrase includes two components, between which one type of syntactic relationship.
^ Compound phrase consists of three or more components, between which there are two or more types of syntactic links. free phrases - each component retains its independence due to sufficient informativeness (each member functions independently): work in the garden, wait for an answer.
Not free- the completeness of the lexical meaning of one of the components is weakened or it is informatively insufficient (close cohesion of the components and the functioning of such a phrase as one member of the sentence): five tables are considered allies, start building, the master speaks
^ Syntactically indecomposable combinations of words :
1) quantitative-nominal combinations: head word - Rod.p., main word - (I.p., R.p. with the preposition to, from, about, over / from Nar in the middle degree more, less):
Five years on the shoulders of soldiers
Few weeks disasters are passing by
More than half of the people screamed at once
One hundred trees growing on the estate
We are from the bones looked at each other
Each of us stand on the very edge of the platform
pronoun in I.p. + pronoun \ number \ adj in I.p.
All this will seem to you a masterpiece of nature.
In his movement was something feverish.
3 Sentence.
The offer is basic unit syntax, since it is in the sentence that the most essential functions of the language are found: cognitive or expressive (language as a tool, an instrument of thinking) and communicative (language as a means of communication).
Modern definition goes back to the structural-semantic direction, the founder of Vinogradov.
Sentence – a unit that denotes a specific situation.
Sentence– a means of expressing theme-rhematic relations.
Sentence – one form of expression.
Sentence- this is an integral unit of speech, grammatically designed according to the laws of a given language, which is the main means of forming, expressing, communicating thoughts (Vinogradov)
For a number of features, a simple sentence is opposed by units of a lower syntactic level.
Word and sentence.
Functionally, a sentence is always more words in his syntactic form. Nominative proposal ^ Wind. in the context of Tyutchev's poem (1) Wind. Everything is buzzing and swaying around, The leaves are spinning at the feet ... performs a different function than the word wind in his dictionary meaning(movement of air flow in a horizontal direction), realizing the nominative function in the phrases western, gusty, sea wind. Form them. case in the sentence not only names the phenomenon, but also reports on its observability: it acts as an independent, undefined. Wed with offer (2) The wind sleeps and everything goes numb. Just to sleep..., in which the state of the wind is characterized by the word sleeping in the present tense. Together with the intonation of the completed message, the word form wind in example (1) conveys an existential meaning, i.e. has a modal-temporal meaning of real reference (observability) to the moment of speech, which turns it into a sentence, into a communicative unit, as in example (2)
Word and phrase.
A sentence is also different from a phrase. Compare the use of the phrase Starlight Night F. Tyutchev: (3) Quiet, starry night, The moon tremblingly shines, Sweet lips of beauty In a quiet, (4) starry night.
Example (3) is similar to a one-word sentence ^ wind, because denotes a certain situation, and in example (4) the phrase falls into the predicate-dependent sweet position, it as a whole, like the word, performs the function of nomination. In the phrase, attributive relations are realized (what night?), which are expressed by the connection of full agreement. Sentence The night is starry is a report of a real fact in the present tense. Here, other than in the phrase, relations are realized: the name of the phenomenon + its characteristic, i.e. conjugation of two concepts between which relations of mutual dependence (predicative) predetermined by syntactic positions are established.
Statement and suggestion.
statement- any linear segment of speech that performs a communicative function (dialogue from Pushkin "Eugene Onegin").
Formed as separate sentences, interjectional utterances are not divided into sentence members: Really? Is it?
In the modern consideration of the proposal, the ratio sentence - statement. At the same time, it should be borne in mind that the statement and the sentence are phenomena of the same order, but not identical. MM. Bakhtin believed that statement- this is a sentence addressed to someone, associated with previous and subsequent texts that determine the speaker's intention, overgrown with extra-textual meanings. That's why They call. is both a sentence and an utterance, and a sentence Boy reading a book contains two sentences: the boy is reading, the boy is reading a book.
Unlike a sentence (as a unit of language and speech), an utterance belongs entirely to the sphere of speech: it belongs to a certain sender, is aimed at a certain recipient, was produced at a certain point in time, committed with purpose, correlates with a certain fragment of reality (situation), performs a certain communicative function and turns out to be appropriate (meaningful) in this particular speech environment.
Sentence, a unit of grammar, usually corresponding to a complete statement and capable of acting as a separate message (text of minimum length). A sentence consists of words that act in morphological forms and in a linear order, which are provided by the grammar of the language.
Aspects of logical, psychological, formal-grammatical definition of a sentence.
Boolean(Buslaev): a sentence - a judgment expressed in words, can express a question, an emotion. Sentences different in composition and structure can express the same judgments (I'm having fun. I'm having fun).
Psychological(Potebnya, Ovsyannikov-Kulikovsky): A sentence is a word, or such an ordered combination of words, which is associated with a special movement of thought, known as
predicates. The main feature of the sentence is predicability (verb in personal form). But! Ex. - impersonal and infinitive.
Logical and psychological direction(Chess): A sentence - a message expressed by a combination of ideas - a predicative connection.
^ Formal grammatical direction (Fortunatov, Peshkovsky): A sentence is a complete phrase.
Suggestion signs.
Sentence- this is such a statement, which is based on an abstract grammatical pattern (a certain scheme, model). This grammatical pattern has a typical grammatical meaning. All sentences built according to this model have this meaning. This value is called predicativity.
Predicativity- the relation of the content of the sentence to reality, expressed in the forms of time, modality and person.
Time
Temporal definiteness: associated with the verb in the form indicative mood, participle in the passive form
Temporal uncertainty
The indirect form of expressing time is the infinitive.
To the main meaning of temporal certainty and uncertainty, various temporal shades or connotations are added to the sentence (from time to time - phraseology, regular repetition).
The offer has intonation(completion; intonation of the message, question, motivation ..) Therefore, intonation is one of the constant characteristic features of the sentence.
It is a means of highlighting the semantic center.
The proposal is built according to an abstract model, a scheme. ^
Block diagrams
underlie different offers- the main members of the sentences are singled out and on this basis the structure of the sentence is determined as two-part or one-part, the characteristic of the distribution of the main members by secondary ones, the allocation of syntactic completeness / incompleteness of the structure, the characteristics of the types of complication.
4. MODALITY.
component of predication. Modality expresses the attitude of the speaker to what is reported in the sentence.
Definition of the content of the category of modality:
Broad Viewpoint:
opposition of statements according to the communicative purpose
contrasting high on the basis of affirmation / denial
gradation of modal values in the range "real-surreal"
subjective-modal meaning
^ Objective modality - a mandatory feature of any statement.
- real(indicative)
- surreal(subjective, modal verb, short adj. with modal meaning: “need to start”, “need to start”).
Meaning real modality characterized by temporal certainty. Meaning unreal modality- uncertainty.
In a sentence, lexico-grammatical forms of predicate expression can be used in figurative meaning – transposition(transfer of the meaning of the grammatical form).
Everyone lower their collars
a) real modality - the forms will express inkl-I:
Current time (it works)
Past time (he worked)
Weekday (it will work)
Subjunctive mood (conditional) - would (it would work)
Desirable inclination - would it work
Meaning of Motivation (Nakl will command) - let it work!
Must - he must / must work
The full paradigm is seven-membered. Consists of the predicate change forms in terms of changing the forms of the temporal value.
In this system of form changes, a commonality is preserved in dictum(proposition, invariant). The opposition/difference between them forms mode.
The value of objective modality is a mandatory feature of the statement. This value is optional, maybe. enclosed in a "modal shell" - subjective modeling.
^
Semantic volume of subjective modality:
1) evaluation value
A) intellectual (rational, logical)
B) emotional (irrational)
C) aesthetic (beautiful - ugly)
D) ethical (true - not true)
2) expression (expressiveness) - expressive-expressive components (“Shaky heart scales”)
^
Means of expressing subjective modality
1) introductory words and components
2) modal particles: What an event! –surprise, Is it possible to go for a walk - an assumption
3) interjections (oh, oh, alas)
4) word order (he will listen to you)
5) special syntactic constructions (she take yes and say no to wait)
^
Modality of affirmation/negation
On the basis of the affirmation, the negations of the sentence are opposed on the basis of the connection between the subject of speech and its predicative feature is affirmed or denied:
The day was cool - will approve the proposal
It was not him - deny
Negative suggestions:
generally negative(negation refers to the predicate): "Father did not come"
private negative(negation refers to some other component of the sentence): "He didn't give me a letter, but a little note" (the object is denied)
Means of expressing negative modality:
negative word NO
negative particles NOT, NOR
negative pronouns NOBODY, NOTHING
modal-predicative words with a negative meaning (impossible, impossible)
Some sentences with a negative particle do NOT acquire an affirmative meaning. This happens when:
double negation gives a statement as part of a compound verb skaz: “The breadth of her interests could not help but amaze me”
It is impossible + not - double negation: "it is impossible not to notice that ..."
Who / what / how + not in exclamatory sentences: “Who in the former Tanya, poor Tanya, would not have recognized the princess now” (anyone would have recognized)
Sentences with combinations of whoever, wherever, whatever - amplifying, not negative f-i: “Whoever you are, my sad neighbor, I love you as a friend of my youth” (= anyone, everyone)
In the subordinate part of the SPP: "wherever you turn, children are everywhere"
Proposals in the form of affirmative may contain expressive negation (I will feed the dog!) Discrepancy between the plan of expression and the plan of content.
Predicativity- a specific relationship between the subject of speech / subject and its modally temporal feature. In this understanding of predicativity, modality is part of it.
According to the communicative orientation, statements are distinguished declarative, interrogative and imperative sentences.
By the presence or absence of emotional coloring - exclamatory and non-exclamatory. The exclamation of a sentence is characterized by an exclamation of intonation, the presence in their composition of interjections, pronouns and adverbs (what, such, how, so, what for), acquiring the properties of emotionally intensifying particles.
According to the nature of the communicative orientation, the questions of the proposal can be divided into:
proper interrogative- the speaker aims to get some information from the interlocutor.
Improper interrogative not intended to receive information:
Interrogative-impellative- contain a wish, request, advice, etc. (Perhaps you should go to the hut, Savely? You will read something to us, won't you?)
Interrogative-rhetorical- sentences containing affirmation or negation (Well, who among us is not happy with spring?)
^ Incentive Offers - the speaker expresses a request, advice, order, warning, wish, etc., i.e. induces the interlocutor to some action.
Incentive sentences always have the meaning of an unreal modality. simple interrogatives and narrative sentences opposed to incentive as sentences that have the meaning of both real modality (more often) and unreal (less often).
Means of expression: forms will command the inclination of the head, induce particles (let, yes, come on ...)
5. Word order and actual division of the sentence.
Depending on the communicative goal pursued by the speaker, the same lexical composition of a sentence can acquire different meanings:
1) due to word order
2) due to the actual division
^
Communicative/actual articulation
- division into a given (original) topic and a new (known) rheme.
V.V. VINOGRADOV
Questions of studying phrases.
Basic questions of sentence syntax
Unlike his predecessors, who tried to find "one hero as a subject of study" 1, 221 of the syntax of A.M. Peshkovsky - a phrase, A.A. Shakhmatov - proposal., V.V. Vinogradov considers both the sentence and the phrase to be the main categories of this grammar department, since there is a qualitative difference between them in several parameters (see Table).
In his opinion, "when a sentence becomes the only subject of syntactic research, ... many questions of studying the laws and rules of word compatibility fall out of the field of grammar" 1, 221.
Vinogradov sets the task of clarifying the internal grammatical nature of both word combinations and sentences; for which he considers it necessary to clearly distinguish between morphology and syntax, as well as to identify transitional and mixed zones of their interaction.
The subject of morphology is the study of the rules for the formation of word forms, the study of words as systems of forms and these forms themselves in their inner unity and in their differences, "depending on belonging ... words ... to different morphological and partly word-forming categories" 1, 222.
The subject of syntax "is the study of the rules and methods of combining words into phrases and sentences, as well as the study of the types of phrases and sentences, their linguistic structure, functions and conditions of use, the laws of their development" 1, 221.
The phrase is understood by Vinogradov as a grammatical unity, which, arising from a combination of words according to the laws or rules of a given language, expresses a single, albeit dissected meaning as part of a sentence. The phrase consists of at least two full-valued words and is the building material for the sentence. It enters the system communication tools language only as part of a sentence. Outside the sentence, the phrase refers to the area of nominative means of language 2, 231.
The phrase is organized around one significant word (the dominant word, the core of the phrase). The morphological structure of this word determines the constructive properties of the phrase. Since the phrase has a system of forms, “there is a variety of syntactic functions of the same phrase if its dominant word is inflected 2, 232.
Vinogradov notes that according to the grammatically dominant main word, phrases are divided into:
1) nominal (substantive and adjectival);
2) verbal;
3) adverbial (adverbial).
This distinction is very important, since there are syntactic connections typical of separate parts of speech 1, 223; 2, 234.
Phrase grammar grapes
Qualitative difference between a phrase and a sentence
|
phrase |
Sentence |
|
|
nominative means of language (naming) |
communicative means of language (message unit) |
|
|
is not an integral unit of linguistic communication and message |
is an integral unit of linguistic communication and message |
|
|
non-predicative compound of words (predicative relations are not characteristic) |
predicative compound of words (predicative relations are typical) |
|
|
syntactic categories of person, tense and modality are not typical |
syntactic categories of person, tense and modality are typical |
|
|
has no intonation of the message |
has the intonation of the message (constant characteristic feature of the proposal) |
|
|
has a system of forms |
||
|
element of the structure of a common simple sentence(building material for offer) |
a simple sentence is an element of the structure of a complex sentence |
Vinogradov also identifies another criterion for dividing phrases into groups - according to semantic classes and word-formation nests. According to this criterion, phrases are combined into groups according to the common stem and the connection of word-formation relations of the main words, as well as according to the general semantic quality (close to the city, close to the city, proximity to the city) 1, 224; 2, 234.
The connections of words in a phrase can be determined not only grammatically, but also semantically. Such links, in contrast to free syntactic links, Vinogradov calls "semantically non-free", and the categories of phrases formed on their basis - "groups of semantically related phrases". Their study requires the establishment and differentiation in the language system semantic categories words with the same forms syntactic compatibility (dream about traveling, dreams about traveling, worrying about children, worrying about children - ch. and noun with the meaning of thought, speech, feeling). 1, 224; 2, 234.
The third circle of word combination formation covers different parts of speech and various categories of words. These are phrases with a “weakly controlled” noun attached to the main word by means of a preposition. For them, a two-way and rather free prepositional connection is typical. "And here huge role plays a grouping of words according to semantic, and partly according to word-formation groups ”These are phrases with a second adverbial or adverbial-determinative member: sink to the waist, wet to the waist, water to the waist; go to Moscow, way to Moscow, road to Moscow, journey to Moscow; stop by the river, house by the river 1, 224 - 225; 2, 234.
The analysis of the linkages of homogeneous members (the so-called coordinating phrases) Vinogradov includes in the doctrine of the proposal.
Vinogradov noted two circles of important questions regarding phrases that have so far remained outside the scope of academic syntax:
1. Methods of construction are not disclosed complex phrases, there is no grouping of the main types of complex combinations.
2. The rules for the formation of phrases should be supplemented by the rules for the use and use of different types of phrases in the sentence structure.
Vinogradov distinguishes between simple and complex sentences.
A simple sentence is sometimes very complex structure. It has various forms of construction, different types, and can also be complicated by isolated and homogeneous members.
Vinogradov confirms that the distinction between simple sentences in the Russian language into two-part and one-part sentences "has firmly entered the scientific syntax." But the question of one-part sentences, in his opinion, "requires further in-depth study." Vinogradov reveals the inconsistency of A.A. Shakhmatova in the description of one-part sentences. He believes that Shakhmatov's thesis about the combination psychological subject and a predicate in one main member of the sentence separates researchers from the concrete historical language material and denies the reflection in speech of objective reality
. “... it would be inappropriate to strive to find "subjects" and "predicates" ... in all types of one-part sentences. However, in some of their forms, one can find morphological correspondences to one of the main members of a two-part ... sentence.
The difference between simple and complex sentences is structural. “A simple sentence is organized through a single concentration of forms of expression of the categories of time, modality and person; in a complex sentence there may be several constructive centers of this kind organically related to each other.
Complex Vinogradov calls such a sentence, which is a single intonation and semantic whole, but consists of parts (two or more), more or less the same type with simple sentences in its formal grammatical structure. The parts of a complex sentence are similar in external structure to simple sentences, but “as part of the whole, they do not have semantic and intonational completeness, ... and, therefore, do not form separate sentences.”
Vinogradov believes that the principles for describing and delimiting the types of complex sentences have not yet been established, “inherited from a long tradition” dividing them into compound and complex sentences is very schematic and conditional. He considers cases of "mutual subordination", based on the works of V.A. Bogoroditsky and A.M. Peshkovsky (although - but, despite the fact that - nevertheless, only just - like, barely - like, etc.). This also includes many types of non-union proposals.
Vinogradov shows that "the concepts of subordination and composition are in dialectical connection and interaction."
Thus, according to Vinogradov, “one should not get carried away with mechanical spacing” different types complex sentences “under the headings of composition and subordination”, but you need to strive for a complete and comprehensive description structural features all major types. In this case, it is necessary to take into account intonation, word order, the presence or absence of correlative words with the union, syntactic functions typed lexical elements, different ways morphological expression of syntactic connection.
Literature
1. Vinogradov V.V. Basic principles of Russian syntax // Izbr. tr. Studies in Russian grammar. - M .: Nauka, 1975. - S. 221-230.
2. Vinogradov V.V. Questions of studying word combinations // Ibid. - S. 231-253.
3. Vinogradov V.V. Basic questions of sentence syntax // Ibid. - pp. 254-294.
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