Modern Russian literary language is studied in every school. Literary, or "standard", is the language of everyday communication, official business documents, schooling, writing, science, culture, fiction. His distinguishing feature– normalization, i.e. the existence of rules, observance of which is mandatory for all members of society. They are fixed (codified) in grammars, reference books, school textbooks, dictionaries of the modern Russian language.

However, for a large part of the inhabitants of Russia, the language everyday communication is a speech. dialect, or dialect,- the smallest territorial kind of language, which is spoken by the inhabitants of one village or several nearby villages. In dialects, as in the literary language, their own language laws apply. This means that everyone who speaks a dialect knows how to say in his dialect, and how not. " Our darevnya talk like that, but Zhytitskh sausem(at all) another gavorka(dialect, adverb)", - they notice in the village of Kashkurino Smolensk region. True, these laws are not clearly understood, especially since they do not have a written set of rules. Russian dialects are characterized only by an oral form of existence, in contrast, for example, from German dialects and from the literary language, possessing oral and written forms existence.

Difference and interaction

The scope of the dialect is much narrower than that of the literary language, which is a means of communication (communication) for all people who speak Russian. It should be noted that the literary language constantly affects dialects through school, radio, television, and the press. This partly destroys the traditional dialect. In turn, dialect norms influence the literary language, which leads to the emergence of territorial varieties of the literary language.

The opposition between Moscow and St. Petersburg literary norms is widely known (the latter was formed under the influence of northwestern dialects): for example, the pronunciation [what], horse[ch'n] about in St. Petersburg, unlike Moscow - [what], horse[sn] about, hard labials in some forms: se[m] , vose[m] ten and other cases. In addition, the North Russian and South Russian versions of the literary pronunciation differ: the first is characterized by partial preservation okanya, i.e. distinction about and a, in unstressed syllables (for example, in Arkhangelsk, Vologda, Vladimir, etc.), and for the second - the pronunciation of [g] fricative (in Ryazan, Tambov, Tula, etc.) in contrast to the literary [g] explosive.

Sometimes the literary language borrows words and expressions from dialects. This applies primarily to subject-household and production-trade vocabulary: jug -‘kind of a jug with a lid’, gingerbread -‘kind of gingerbread, often on honey’, braid– ‘the time when they mow bread, grass’ , shell– ‘side wall of various cylindrical or conical vessels, drums, pipes’. Especially often the literary language lacks “its own” words for expressing feelings, i.e. expressive vocabulary, which “gets old” faster than other words, losing its original expressiveness. Then dialects come to the rescue. Words came from the southern dialects into the literary language wallow‘fuss, waste of time’, seize‘grab, greedily take’, from the northeastern - joke‘talk, joke’, and the word that has spread in the colloquial slang language goof origin is northwestern. It has the meaning of 'a fool, a fool'.

It should be noted that dialects are heterogeneous in origin: some are very ancient, while others are “younger”. with conversations primary education call those of them that are common in the territory of the early settlement of the East Slavic tribes, from the VI century. until the end of the 16th century, where the language of the Russian nation was developing - in the center of the European part of Russia, including Arkhangelsk region. In the spaces where Russian people moved, as a rule, after the 16th century. from a variety of places - the northern, central and southern provinces of Russia - dialects arose secondary education. Here the population was mixed, which means that the local languages ​​\u200b\u200bthat they spoke were also mixed, as a result, a new linguistic unity was obtained. And so new dialects were born in the Middle and Lower Volga regions, in the Urals, Kuban, Siberia and other parts of Russia. The dialects of the center are "mother" for them.

Good or bad?

At present, people who speak dialects tend to have an ambivalent attitude towards their language. Rural residents, on the one hand, evaluate their native language, comparing it with the surrounding dialects, and on the other hand, with the literary language.

In the first case, when one's own dialect is compared with the language of the neighbors, it is assumed to be good, correct, beautiful, and "alien" is usually evaluated as something ridiculous, clumsy, sometimes even funny. This is often reflected in ditties:

Like baranovsky girls
They speak with a letter c:
"Give me a soap, a towel
And culotsky on the toe!».

Here, attention is drawn to a very common phenomenon in Russian dialects - “clatter”, the essence of which lies in the fact that in place h villagers in a number of places pronounce c. With the ridiculing of the speech features of the neighbors is also connected big number sayings. Kurisa on the street yaiso demolished- one of the teasers of this kind. And this is not an exaggeration, not fiction. In this case, another dialectal feature is played out: the pronunciation of the sound [c] in place of [c], which is inherent in some dialects of Oryol, Kursk, Tambov, Belgorod, Bryansk regions. In Russian, the sound [ts] (affricate) consists of two elements: [t + s] = [ts], if the first element - [t] is lost in the dialect - [s] appears in place of [ts].

Features of the pronunciation of neighbors are sometimes fixed in nicknames. In the village of Popovka Tambov region We have heard the saying: yes we call them shemyaki, they on sch they say: right now (now) I will come". Villagers are keenly aware of the differences between one dialect and another. " In Orlovka, the Cossacks lisped more. Proverb(“speaking, pronunciation”) at their friend. The Transbaikal Cossacks also have interesting sayings", - the dialectologists recorded the opinion of the natives with. Albazino Skovorodinsky district of the Amur region about the language of the Cossacks.

But when compared with the literary language, one’s own dialect is already assessed as bad, “gray”, incorrect, and the literary language is assessed as good, which should be imitated.

Similar observations about dialects can be found in the book by M.V. Panov "The History of Russian Literary Pronunciation of the 18th-20th Centuries": "Those who speak dialects have become ashamed of their speech. And before, it used to be ashamed if they got into an urban, non-dialect environment. Now, even in their families, the elders hear from the younger ones that they, the elders, say “wrong”, “uncivilized”. The voice of linguists advising to maintain respect for the dialect and use the local language in the family, among fellow villagers (and in other conditions, use the language taught by the school) - this voice was not heard. Yes, and it sounded quiet, not broadcast.

Respectful attitude to the literary language is natural and quite understandable: in this way, its value and significance for the whole society is realized and emphasized. However, a disdainful attitude to one's own dialect and to dialects in general as to "backward" speech is immoral and unfair. Dialects arose in the process of the historical development of the people, and the basis of any literary language is a dialect. Probably, if Moscow had not become the capital of the Russian state, our literary language would also have been different. Therefore, all dialects are equivalent from a linguistic point of view.

The fate of dialects

It is worth paying attention to the fact that in many countries of Western Europe, the study of local dialects is treated with respect and care: in a number of French provinces, the native dialect is taught in extracurricular activities at school and a mark for it is put in the certificate. In Germany, literary-dialect bilingualism is generally accepted. A similar situation was observed in Russia in the 19th century: educated people, coming from the countryside to the capitals, they spoke the literary language, and at home, on their estates, when communicating with peasants and neighbors, they used the local dialect.

The reasons for the modern neglect of dialects should be sought in our past, in the ideology of a totalitarian state. At the time of transformation in agriculture(the period of collectivization), all manifestations of the material and spiritual life of the old Russian village were declared relics of the past. Entire families were evicted from their homes, they were declared kulaks, a stream of hardworking and economic peasants rushed from Central Russia to Siberia and Transbaikalia, many of them died. For the peasants themselves, the village turned into a place from which they had to flee in order to escape, to forget everything connected with it, including the language. As a result, the traditional culture of the peasantry was largely lost. This also applies to the language. It was predicted, even by linguists, the rapid disappearance of folk dialects. A whole generation of natives of the village, deliberately abandoning their native dialect, failed for many reasons to perceive a new language system for themselves - the literary language, to master it. This led to the decline of linguistic culture in the country.

Language consciousness is part of the cultural identity, and if we want to revive culture, to promote its flourishing, then we must begin with the language. “There is no clearly defined boundary between the self-awareness of the elements of language and other elements of culture ... in critical historical eras, the native language becomes a symbol of national self-awareness,” writes Moscow linguist S.E. Nikitina, who researched folk painting peace.

That is why the current moment is favorable for changing attitudes towards dialects in society, for awakening interest in the native language in all its manifestations. AT recent decades research institutes are engaged in the collection and description of dialects Russian Academy Sciences, many universities in Russia, they publish various kinds of dialect dictionaries. Such gathering activity, in which students of the humanities faculties also take part, is important not only for linguistics, but also for studying the culture and history of the people, and, undoubtedly, for the education of young people. The fact is that by exploring dialects, we learn a new wonderful world - the world of folk traditional ideas about life, often very different from modern ones. No wonder N.V. Gogol in "Dead Souls" remarks: "And every people ... has distinguished itself in its own way own word, which ... reflects part of his own character.

What is the fate of dialects at the present time? Have they been preserved or are local dialects - rare exoticisms, for which you have to go far into the outback? It turns out that despite the general literacy, the influence of television, radio, numerous newspapers and magazines has been preserved. And they were preserved not only in hard-to-reach places, but also in areas close to capitals and big cities. Of course, the dialect is spoken by people of the older and middle generation, and by small children, if they are brought up by village grandparents. They, the old-timers, are the guardians local language, the necessary source of information that dialectologists are looking for. In the speech of young people leaving the countryside, only certain dialectal features are preserved, but there are also those who stay at home forever. They also use, living in the village, folk-colloquial speech. Although the dialects are largely destroyed, it is impossible to predict their imminent disappearance. Getting acquainted with the colloquial speech, we get information about the names household items, meanings of dialect words, concepts that are not found in the city. But not only that. The dialects reflect the centuries-old traditions of housekeeping, the peculiarities of the family way of life, ancient rituals, customs, folk calendar and much more. That is why it is so important to record the speech of the villagers for further study. Each dialect has a lot of expressive, vivid verbal images, phraseological units, sayings, riddles:

An affectionate word is not difficult, but quickly(profitable, successful, useful); Lies are not arguable: they will confuse soon; A thin silence is better than a good grumbling; I don’t look, so I don’t see, I don’t want, so I don’t hear; and here are the riddles: What is the sweetest and bitterest of all?(Word); Two mothers have five sons, all in the same name(fingers); I don’t know one, I don’t see the other, I don’t remember the third(death, age and birth).

Dialectisms in fiction

Dialect words are not uncommon in fiction. Usually they are used by those writers who themselves come from the village, or those who are well acquainted with folk speech: A.S. Pushkin, L.N. Tolstoy, S.T. Aksakov I.S. Turgenev, N.S. Leskov, N.A. Nekrasov, I.A. Bunin, S.A. Yesenin, N.A. Klyuev, M.M. Prishvin, S.G. Pisakhov, F.A. Abramov, V.P. Astafiev, A.I. Solzhenitsyn, V.I. Belov, E.I. Nosov, B.A. Mozhaev, V.G. Rasputin and many others.

For a modern city schoolchild, the lines of S. Yesenin from the poem “In the House”, which are given in many teaching aids. We will consider it too.

Smells loose brawlers,
At the threshold in bowl kvass,
Above stoves chiselled
Cockroaches climb into the groove.

Soot curls over damper,
Thread in the oven popelits,
And on the bench behind the salt shaker -
Husks of raw eggs.

mother with grips won't get along
bends down low about,
old cat k mahotke kr a goes
For fresh milk

Restless chickens chuckle
Over shafts plows,
In the yard I will have a slender dinner
The roosters are singing.

And in the window in the canopy sloping,
From shy noise,
From the corners puppies are curly
They crawl into collars.

S.A. Yesenin, according to contemporaries, was very fond of reading this poem in 1915–1916. in front of the public. Literary critic V. Chernyavsky recalls: “... He had to explain his vocabulary, - there were “foreigners” around, - and neither the “groove”, nor the “dezhka”, nor the “sloping”, nor the “sloping” were understandable to them. The poet - a native of the village of Konstantinovo, Ryazan province - often used his own, Ryazan words and forms in his works, incomprehensible to the inhabitants of the city, to those who are familiar only with the literary language. Chernyavsky calls them "foreigners". Most of us are foreigners. Therefore, we explain the meaning of the highlighted words. Incomprehensible in the text of the poem are not only Ryazan words, i.e. directly dialectisms, but also such expressions that characterize the life of any village (collar, plow, stove, damper).

Drachona (Jerking) - this is the name of a thick pancake, more often from wheat flour, smeared on top with an egg, or potato pancakes. It is these meanings that are most common in the villages of the Ryazan region. In other Russian dialects, the given word can mean a completely different dish.

dezhka - the word is very widespread in southern dialect. This wooden tub was made by coopers, there were several bowls on the farm, they were used for pickling cucumbers, mushrooms, and for storing water, kvass, and for making dough. As you can see, kvass is poured in this bowl.

When you ask schoolchildren in a lesson: “What do you think: what does the word stoves ? - in response you hear: "Little stoves." - “But why are there several of them and they are chiseled?” Pechurka - a small recess in the outer or side wall of the oven for drying and storing small items.

popelica - formed from a dialect word sang - ashes.

grip - a device with which the pots are taken out of the oven (see figure) is a curved metal plate - a slingshot, attached to a handle - a long wooden stick. The word, although it denotes an object of peasant life, is included in the literary language, and therefore in dictionaries it is given without a mark of the region. (regional) or dial. (dialect).

mahotka - clay pot.

low, sneaking - these words are given with dialectal stress.

The words shafts ‘element of harness’, as well as plow ‘primitive agricultural tool’, are included in the literary language, we will find them in any explanatory dictionary. It's just that they are not well known, because they are usually associated with an old, bygone village, a traditional peasant economy. And as for the words sloped (probably sloping) and noise (noise), then there is no information about them in dialect dictionaries. And dialectologists, without special studies, cannot say whether there is Ryazan dialects such words or they are inventions of the poet himself, i.e. writer's occasionalisms.

So, a dialect word, phrase, construction included in a work of art to convey local color when describing village life, to create a speech characteristic of characters, is called dialectism.

Dialectisms are perceived by us as something outside the literary language, not corresponding to its norms. Dialectisms are different depending on what trait they reflect. Local words that are unknown to the literary language are called lexical dialects. These include the words dezhka, mahotka, drachena, popelitsa. If they are listed in dictionaries, then with a note regional (region).

In our example, the word stove, which in the literary language means a small stove, but in the dialect it has a completely different meaning (see above). This is semantic (semantic) dialectism(from Greek. semanticos- denoting), i.e. the word is known to the literary language, but its meaning is different.

A variety of lexical dialectisms areethnographic dialectisms. They designate the names of objects, foods, clothes, peculiar only to the inhabitants of a certain area - in other words, this is the dialect name of a local thing. “Women in plaid panevs threw wood chips at slow-witted or overzealous dogs,” writes I.S. Turgenev . Paneva (poneva) - view women's clothing type of skirt, characteristic of peasant women from the south of Russia, they wear it both in Ukraine and in Belarus. Panevs, depending on the area, differ in their material and colors. Here is another example of ethnography from the story of V.G. Rasputin's "French Lessons": "Even earlier, I noticed with what curiosity Lydia Mikhailovna glances at my shoes. Of the entire class, I was the only one wearing teal.” In Siberian dialects, the word teal means light leather shoes, usually without tops, with trim and ties.

Let us once again pay attention to the fact that many lexical and semantic dialectisms can be found in the explanatory dictionaries of the literary language marked reg. (regional). Why are they included in dictionaries? Because they are often used in fiction, in newspapers, magazines, in colloquial speech, when it comes to village problems.

Often it is important for writers to show not only what the character says, but also how he says it. For this purpose, dialect forms are introduced into the characters' speech. It is impossible to get past them. For example, I.A. Bunin, a native of the Oryol region, who brilliantly knew the dialect of his native places, writes in the story “Tales”: “This Vanya is from the oven, which means getting down, Malachai to myself putting on, sash girded, clade in the bosom kryushechkyu and goes to this very guard ”(emphasis added. - I.B., O.K.). Kushachkyom, kraushechku - convey the peculiarities of the pronunciation of the Oryol peasants.

Varieties of dialectisms

Such dialectisms are called phonetic. In the above words, the sound [k] softens under the influence of the neighboring soft sound[h '] - is likened to the previous sound on the basis of softness. This phenomenon is called assimilation(from lat. assimilation- assimilation).

Phonetic dialectisms, or rather, accentological ones that convey dialectal stress, include the forms low, sneaking from Yesenin's poem.

There is in Bunin's text and grammatical dialectisms, which reflect the morphological features of the dialect. These include the words put, getting down, putting on. In these verbs, the final was dropped t in 3rd person singular followed by the transition of the shock to - instead of gets off - getting down, instead of puts on - putting on.

Grammatical dialectisms are often cited in the speech of heroes, since they do not complicate the understanding of the text and at the same time give it a bright dialectal color. Let's take another interesting example. In Northern Russian dialects, the past tense is preserved - pluperfect: this tense indicates an action that took place in the past before some other specific action. Here is an excerpt from the story of B.V. Shergin: " Was bought I like a silk robe about the holiday. I did not have time to thank, I ran to the chapel to show off my new thing. Tatko was offended." Tatko - father in Pomeranian dialects. Was bought and there is the past tense. First, the father bought a bathrobe (preliminary past), and then the daughter did not have time to thank him (past tense) for the update.

Another type of dialectic derivational dialectisms.

ON THE. Nekrasov in the poem "Peasant Children" writes:

Mushroom time did not have time to depart,
Look - everyone has black lips,
Nabili osmomu: blueberry ripe!
And there are raspberries, lingonberries, walnuts!

There are several dialect words here. Oscom, relevant literary form set on edge, and blueberry, those. blueberry. Both words have the same literary words roots, but different suffixes.

Naturally, dialect words, phrases, syntactic constructions go beyond the norm of the literary language and therefore have a bright stylistic coloring. But the language of fiction, being a special phenomenon, includes everything that exists linguistic diversity. The main thing is that such inclusion should be motivated, justified by artistic goals. Undoubtedly, the very word that came from the dialect should become understandable to the reader. For this purpose, some writers explain dialectisms directly in the text, others give a footnote. These authors include I.S. Turgenev, M.M. Prishvin, F.A. Abramov.

Set word value...

In one of the stories of the "Notes of a Hunter" I. Turgenev remarks: "We went to the forest, or, as we say, to the" order "."

F. Abramov in the novel “Pryasliny” often interprets the meaning of local words in footnotes: “Sister Marfa Pavlovna warmed up, and thank God,” and the footnote states: sister - cousin.

In the story "The pantry of the sun" M. Prishvin repeatedly uses the dialect word elan: “Meanwhile, right here, in this clearing, the interlacing of plants stopped altogether, there was a spruce tree, the same thing as an ice hole in a pond in winter. In an ordinary elani, at least a little bit of water is always visible, covered with large, white, beautiful kupava, water lilies. That is why this spruce was called Blind, because it was impossible to recognize it by its appearance. Not only does the meaning of the dialect word become clear from the text, the author, at the first mention of it, gives a footnote-explanation: “Elan is a swampy place in a swamp, it’s like a hole in the ice.”

So, in the story of the Siberian writer V. Rasputin “Live and Remember”, the same word is repeatedly found elan, as in Prishvin, but it is given without any explanation, and one can only guess about its meaning: “Guskov went out into the fields and turned to the right, to the distant elani, he had to spend the whole day there.” More likely elan in this case it means "field" or "meadow". And here are other examples from the same work: “The snow in the cold spruce forest almost did not melt, the sun here and in open places was weaker than on the spruce trees, in the clearings lay clear, like squeezed out, open shadows of trees.” “All day he wandered through the spruces, either going out into open places, or hiding in the forest; sometimes, to the point of passion, to evil impatience, he wanted to see people and to be seen too.

If we now turn to the multi-volume "Dictionary of Russian Folk Dialects", which is published by the Institute of Linguistic Research of the Russian Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg and includes dialect words collected throughout Russia, it turns out that elan has ten meanings, and even in close territories they differ. In Siberian dialects alone elan can mean: 1) flat open space; 2) meadow, meadow plain; 3) a place suitable for pastures; 5) field plain, field, arable land; 6) a clearing in the forest, etc. Agree, it is difficult, not being a native of those places about which Valentin Rasputin writes, to say with confidence what the meaning of the word is elan in the passages given.

Especially often writers resort to various kinds of dialectisms, stylizing folk speech, writing in the form of a tale: N.S. Leskov, P.P. Bazhov, S.G. Pisakhov, B.V. Shergin, V.I. Belov. Here is an excerpt from the fairy tale by S.G. Pisakhova “Northern Lights”: “In the summer we have day and night light, we don’t sleep. I work during the day, and at night I run ghouls and race with deer. And from autumn to winter we are preparing. We dry the northern lights.

As you can see, Pisakhov conveys a very bright line northern dialects - loss of j and subsequent contraction of vowels in the endings of verbs and adjectives: north from north round from round, work from working, ghouls from walking, running from running.

The narrator in such works is most often a joker who looks at the world with irony and optimism. He has a lot of stories and jokes in store for all occasions.

These characters include the narrator wonderful work IN AND. Belova “Vologda Bays”: “It’s good to live while you are Kuzka. As soon as you become Kuzma Ivanovich, it immediately throws you into thoughtfulness. From this thoughtfulness comes the eclipse of life. Here again, you can’t live without a bay. The bay amuses the soul without wine, the heart rejuvenates. Gives brains enlightenment and a new move. With a bay and the stomach feels better. The bay is different and small, but remote ... ". In Vologda dialects bay means ‘fiction, absurdity’, there is even a phraseological unit bays to bend ‘to engage in idle talk, to speak absurdities’. The tale form makes it possible to look at the world differently, to understand the main thing in a person and life, to laugh at oneself, to support others with a cheerful joke.

Writers subtly feel the brightness and originality folk speech from which they draw imagery and inspiration. So, B.V. Shergin in the essay "Dvina Land" writes about one Pomeranian storyteller: "I was eager to listen to Pafnuty Osipovich and later retold his foldable, beautiful word awkwardly."

Have there been incidents with you when, while reading the works of Russian classics, you did not understand what they were writing about? Most likely, this happened not because of your inattention to the plot of the work, but because of the writer's style, which includes obsolete words, dialectisms.

V. Rasputin, V. Astafiev, M. Sholokhov, N. Nekrasov, L. Tolstoy, A. Chekhov, V. Shukshin, S. Yesenin liked to express themselves with words of this type. And this is only a small part of them.

Dialectisms: what is it and how many types exist

Dialects are words whose area of ​​distribution and use is limited to some territory. They are widely used in the vocabulary of the rural population.

Examples of dialectisms in the Russian language show that they have individual features regarding phonetics, morphology, vocabulary:

1. Phonetic dialectisms.

2. Morphological dialectisms.

3. Lexical:

• actually lexical;
• lexico-semantic;

4. Ethnographic dialectisms.

5. Word-building dialectisms.

Dialectisms are also found at the syntactic, phraseological levels.

Types of dialectisms as separate features of the original Russian people

In order to recognize the original features of the dialect of the Russian people, it is necessary to consider dialectisms in more detail.

Examples of dialectisms:

• The replacement of one or more letters in a word is typical for phonetic dialectisms: millet - millet; Khvedor - Fedor.
• Word changes that are not the norm in terms of matching words in sentences are characteristic of morphological dialectisms: at me; I spoke with smart people(substitution of cases, plural and singular).
• Words and expressions that are found only in a certain locality, which do not have phonetic and derivational analogues. Words whose meaning can only be understood from the context are called lexical dialectisms. In general, in the well-known dictionary use, they have equivalent words that are understandable and known to everyone. The following dialectisms (examples) are typical for the southern regions of Russia: beet - beets; tsibula - onion.
• Words that are used only in a particular region, which have no analogues in the language due to their correlation with the characteristics of the life of the population, are called "ethnographic dialectisms". Examples: shanga, shanga, shaneshka, shanechka - dialectism denoting certain kind cheesecakes with the top potato layer. These delicacies are widespread only in a certain region; they cannot be characterized in one word from general use.
• Dialectisms that have arisen due to a special affixal design are called derivational: guska - goose, pokeda - yet.

Lexical dialectisms as a separate group

Due to their heterogeneity, lexical dialectisms are divided into the following types:

• Properly lexical: dialectisms that, with general literary ones, have general meaning, but differ from them in spelling. They can be called peculiar synonyms of commonly understood and well-known words: beets - sweet potato; stitch - track.
• Lexico-semantic. Practically complete opposite proper lexical dialectisms: they have a common spelling and pronunciation, but differ in meaning. Correlating them, it is possible to characterize as homonyms in relation to each other.

For example, the word "peppy" in different parts of the country can have two meanings.

1. Literary: energetic, full of energy.
2. Dialect meaning (Ryazan): smart, neat.

Thinking about the purpose of dialectisms in the Russian language, we can assume that, despite the differences with general literary words, they replenish the stocks of the Russian literary vocabulary along with them.

The role of dialectisms

The role of dialectisms for the Russian language is diverse, but first of all they are important for the inhabitants of the country.

Functions of dialectisms:

1. Dialectisms are one of the most important means of oral communication for people living in the same territory. It was from oral sources that they penetrated into written ones, giving rise to the following function.
2. The dialectisms used at the level of district and regional newspapers contribute to a more accessible presentation of the information provided.
3. Fiction takes information about dialectisms from the colloquial speech of residents of specific regions and from the press. They are used to convey local features of speech, and also contribute to a more vivid transmission of the character of the characters.

Some expressions slowly but surely fall into the general literary fund. They become known and understood by everyone.

The study of the functions of dialectisms by researchers

P.G. Pustovoit, exploring the work of Turgenev, focused on dialectisms, examples of words and their meaning, he names the following functions:

• characterological;
• cognitive;
• speech dynamization;
• cumulation.

V.V. Vinogradov based on the works of N.V. Gogol identifies the following series of functions:

• characterological (reflective) - it contributes to coloring the speech of characters;
• nominative (naming) - manifests itself when using ethnographisms and lexical dialectisms.

most full classification functions were developed by Professor L.G. Samotik. Lyudmila Grigoryevna singled out 7 functions for which dialectisms are responsible in a work of art:

Modeling;

nominative;

emotive;

Culminative;

Aesthetic;

phatic;

Characterological.

Literature and dialectisms: what threatens the abuse?

Over time, the popularity of dialectisms, even at the oral level, decreases. Therefore, writers and correspondents should use them sparingly in their work. Otherwise, the perception of the meaning of the work will be difficult.

Dialectisms. Examples of inappropriate use

When working on a work, you need to think over the relevance of each word. First of all, you should think about the appropriateness of using dialect vocabulary.

For example, instead of the dialect-regional word "kosteril" it is better to use the general literary "scold". Instead of "promised" - "promised".

The main thing is to always understand the line of moderate and appropriate use of dialect words.

Dialecticisms should help the perception of the work, and not hinder it. To understand how to use this figure of the Russian language correctly, you can ask for help from the masters of the word: A.S. Pushkin, N.A. Nekrasov, V.G. Rasputin, N.S. Leskov. They skillfully, and most importantly, moderately used dialectisms.

The use of dialectisms in fiction: I.S. Turgenev and V.G. Rasputin

Some works of I.S. Turgenev is difficult to read. Studying them, you need to think not only about the general meaning of the literary heritage of the writer's work, but also about almost every word.

For example, in the story "Bezhin Meadow" we can find the following sentence:

“With quick steps I walked a long “area” of bushes, climbed a hill and, instead of this familiar plain ˂…˃, I saw completely different places unknown to me”

An attentive reader has a logical question: “Why did Ivan Sergeevich put in brackets the seemingly ordinary and appropriate word “area”?”.

The writer personally answers it in another work “Khor and Kalinich”: ““ Squares ”are called in Oryol province large solid masses of bushes.

It becomes clear that given word widespread only in Oryol region. Therefore, it can be safely attributed to the group of "dialectisms".

Examples of sentences using terms of a narrow stylistic orientation used in the speech of residents of certain regions of Russia can be seen in the stories of V.G. Rasputin. They help him show the identity of the character. In addition, the personality of the hero, his character is reproduced precisely through such expressions.

Examples of dialectisms from the works of Rasputin:

• Cool down - cool down.
• To roar - to rage.
• Pokul - for now.
• Engage - get in touch.

It is noteworthy that the meaning of many dialectisms cannot be understood without context.

Dialect vocabulary is words, the use of which is characteristic of people living in a certain area. A dialect is an oral colloquial and everyday speech of the inhabitants of a certain area. Dialectism is a word used in this type of speech.

Types of dialectisms: 1) phonetic - these are words that reflect the phonetic features of the dialect (syalo, prenik, pisnya) 2) derivational - these are words in which the morphemic structure is very close to the literary norm, but has some modifications while maintaining one and the same the same root (calf-calf, side-side) 3) morphological - forms, different from literary ones (I’ll go to my sister, to my sister, to me, to myself, to her, walk, know, read) 4) syntactic - excellent -sya from letters. constructions (went to the doctor, people are standing) 5) lexical: a) own. lexical (in relation to the lit. word. yavl. syn., such words are not in the literal language) - buckets, forgetfulness (in fact); b) lexical-semantic (in relation to the literary words are homonyms) - transparent-educated, huge-knowing; c) ethnographisms are local names of things and concepts distributed in a given area (korets, beetroot, lushnik. The use of dialect vocabulary in speech. Since dialect vocabulary belongs to the number of words that are not well-known, non-national, the question is natural, how and to what extent it can be used in artistic purposes. The degree and nature of the use of dialect words are determined by the theme of the work, the object of the image, the goals set by the author, his aesthetic ideal, skill, etc. but sometimes also in the language of the author, where they are given without any explanation. In I. S. Turgenev, such words are in the nature of quotations, inclusions, alien to the general verbal context. At the same time, they are equipped

remarks revealing their meaning, area of ​​use and these graphic means in the text emphasize their difference from the general literary context. The dialect words used by the authors can denote some objects, realities that are not known to public use, and then the function of dialectisms is primarily naming. The same function is often played by those proper lexical dialectisms that do not have a one-word equivalent in the literary language: Having settled down on the lawn under an oak tree, I decided to cook porridge-slivukha. Dialectisms can be a fresh, expressive medium. It was the expressiveness of the word crawl (an old skin shed by some animals during molting) that delighted A. S. Pushkin, who heard it from an expert in folk speech V. I.

Dahl. Dialectisms of all types serve as a means of individualizing a character (the work of Paustovsky),

with their help, it is possible to achieve ethnographic authenticity and artistic persuasiveness in the reproduction of everyday life, furnishings, etc. Speaking about the use of dialect words in a newspaper, it must be emphasized that the requirement for a motivated use of dialectisms acquires special significance here.

meaning. And, above all, because the newspaper should carry the reader an educated, literary speech. This means that the involvement of non-literary means should be in newspaper texts most justified.

It should be remembered that the dialect word used in the newspaper should be understandable to the reader, and therefore explained if it requires it by its nature. After all, the newspaper is read quickly and the reader does not have time to look for an incomprehensible word in the dictionaries.

More on Dialect Vocabulary. Types of dialectisms. Dialect words as a source of replenishment of popular lexical means. The use of dialect means in fiction (functions and methods of input into the text). Lexical errors associated with the inappropriate use of dialectisms.:

1. Vocabulary of the modern Russian language from the point of view of its social and dialect composition (field of use) 12. Dialect vocabulary
2. Synonym functions. The use of synonyms in artistic speech and journalism. Lexical errors associated with the inappropriate use of synonyms.
3. § 18. Common and socially or dialectally limited vocabulary
4. Functions of obsolete words. Lexical errors associated with inappropriate
5. E. F. Galushko (Ulyanovsk) Dialectal word in literary text and dictionary (based on the works of I. A. Goncharov)
6. §one. The use of dialect, professional and terminological vocabulary in speech
7. Functions of polysemantic words. The use of polysemantic words in fiction. Lexical errors associated with the unsuccessful use of polysemantic words.

DIALECTISM - a word or a stable combination in a literary language that is not included in its lexical system, but is an affiliation of one or more dialects of the Russian general national language. Depending on what features of the dialect are reflected in the dialect word, dialectisms are divided into lexical-phonetic (pavuk, cf. spider, eastern, cf. sharp), lexical-derivative (saucers, cf. saucer, song, cf. rooster), actually lexical (shaber - "neighbor", Basque - "beautiful"), lexical-semantic (guess - "learn", freckle - "fever"). A special group is made up of ethnographic dialectisms - words that name concepts that are characteristic only for the life of native speakers. This is the name of clothing, utensils, dishes, local customs, etc. (shushun, paneva - the name of women's clothing; rybnik - "pie with baked whole fish"; dozhinki - the name of the holiday associated with the end of field work). Ethnographic dialectisms usually do not have synonyms in the literary language.

Often the vocabulary of dialects is characterized by accuracy in the designation of concepts. Therefore, dialectisms are used by writers in the language of works of art for various purposes: to convey local color, to create or enhance a comic effect, to accurately depict realities, to express the language of characters, and others. There are certain patterns in the introduction of dialectisms into the language of a work: they are usually introduced into the speech of the characters, and ethnographic and proper lexical dialectisms are most often used. In Russian classical literature D. Grigoryevich, A. Pisemsky, I. Turgenev, L. Tolstoy and others introduced dialectisms into the language of their works, in contemporary literature they are used by M. Sholokhov, V. Tendryakov, V. Belov, V. Soloukhin and others.

Dialectisms. 1. Words from different dialects are often used in the language of fiction for stylistic purposes (to create local color, to characterize characters in speech).

2. Phonetic, morphological, syntactic, phraseological, semantic features inherent in individual dialects in comparison with the literary language.

Dialectisms are grammatical. Grammar Features in a particular dialect, manifested in declension, the formation of forms of parts of speech, the transition from one gender in another, etc. Past the hut (instead of past the hut), in the steppe (instead of the steppe), wide steppes (instead of the steppe), weaker (instead of weaker). The whole face became so kind of blue (Bunin). The cat smells whose meat it has eaten (Sholokhov).

Dialectisms are lexico-phonetic. Words with a different vowel than in the literary language. Eastern (sharp), spider (spider), pinzhak (jacket), hear (listen).

Semantic dialectisms. Common words with a meaning other than in the literary language. Much in the meaning of “very”, arrogant in the meaning of “sudden”, flood in the meaning of “drown”, guess in the meaning of “recognize by sight”.

Dialectisms are word-forming. Words with a different word-formation structure than those of the same root literary synonyms. Run (run), saucer (saucer), guska (goose), dozhzhok (rain), not walking and not going side (not going, not going), side (side).

Dialectisms are actually lexical. Local names of objects and phenomena that have other names in the literary language. Baz (covered yard for livestock), beetroot (beets), veksha (squirrel), gashnik (belt), infection (now), kochet (rooster), stubble (stubble).

Phonetic dialectisms. Peculiarities sound system dialect. Girl, scream, cai (see clatter), nyas, myashok (see yak), etc.

Phraseological dialectisms. Stable combinations found only in dialects. To give as a waste (to expose to a blow), to carry both from the Don and from the sea (to carry nonsense), to lag behind (knock down), wheezing to bend (to work with tension).

Ethnographic dialectisms. local names local items. Obednik, poberezhnik, polunoshnik, shalonik (the name of the winds near the coast-dwellers), crane (a lever for lifting water from a well), cats (birch bark bast shoes), novina (a harsh canvas).

Dialectisms (from the Greek. Dialektos dialect, dialect) - characteristic of territorial dialects language features included in literary speech. Phonetic dialectisms - clatter: to [c] ka, but [c]; yakane: [in a] draw, [n a] rotten; pronunciation [x] in place of r at the end of the word: dream [x], other [x].

Grammatical and dialectisms: t at the end of the 3rd l. verbs: go, take; ending genus. n. I declension of nouns - e: from the wife, from the sister; special management of pretexts: came from Moscow, left for bread, go to the hut. Word-formative dialectisms: bilberry, cherniga (bilberry), heifer, telysh, telesh (calf), sideways (on the side).

Lexical dialectisms can be of several types: 1) ethnographers name objects, concepts that are characteristic of everyday life, the economy of a given area, and have no parallels in the literary language: noneva variety of a skirt, a vessel made of birch bark; 2) proper lexical dialectisms - synonyms of the corresponding words of the literary language: kochet (cock), bascoi (beautiful), hefty (very); 3) semantic dialectisms have a different meaning than in the literary language: canopy bridge, bad weather, bad weather.

Dialecticisms are used in the language of fiction for stylization, speech characteristics of characters, and creation of local color. Dialectisms can also be found in the speech of persons who have not fully mastered the norms of the literary language.

DIALECT (from the Greek. Dialektos-conversation, speech, adverb) - a kind of language, which is characterized by the relative unity of the system (phonetic, grammatical, lexical) and is used as a means direct communication within a group in a limited area. The dialect is part of a larger language education, is opposed to other parts of this whole, other dialects and has common features with them. There are territorial social dialects.

To define a territorial dialect as part of a whole, the concepts of dialect difference and isogloss are essential. Examples of dialect differences can be okane and akanye, the distinction between sounds (ts) and (h) and their indistinguishability (clatter), the presence of a sound (g) of an explosive formation and a sound (y) of a fricative formation, forms R. P. units. h Line on linguistic map, showing the distribution of dialect differences in the territory, is called isogloss. Isoglosses different phenomena can approach, forming bundles. With the help of bundles of isoglosses, territories are distinguished that are characterized by a relative commonality of the language system, that is, dialects are distinguished. This also takes into account extralinguistic socio-historical facts, such as the territorial prevalence of phenomena, elements of material and spiritual culture, historical and cultural traditions, etc. Thus, the dialect has not only linguistic, but also socio-historical content. This content varies historical periods. In the era of the tribal system, tribal dialects existed. The era of feudalism is associated with the emergence of territorial dialects. It is precisely for feudalism that the formation of new dialects and their specific traits was an ongoing process. Under capitalism with overcoming feudal fragmentation dialect education is suspended. Under socialism, dialects are a survival category: they are no longer called into being by socio-economic conditions, but continue to exist, while decomposition, deformation, leveling, and approximation to the norms of the literary language take place.

Territorial dialectisms are characterized by social differentiation. The traditional type of dialect is singled out, usually represented by the older generation, ch. arr. women, and the language of youth, which approaches the literary language. Dialects are always opposed to literary language. Interaction between dialect and lit. language currently determines the ways of further and their development.

Under the social dialects are meant professional and various kinds of languages. There is a significant difference between territorial and social dialects: the features of the first relate to the entire structure of the language, therefore they are part of a more general language formation, the features of the second cover only the facts of vocabulary and phraseology.

Due to the complexity of the dialectal articulation of the language, when describing the dialectal structure of the Russian language, terms of a different volume are used: adverb and dialect. In Russian scientific literature, the term "dialect" can be used as a synonym for the terms "adverb" and "dialect".

DIALECTISMS

Dialect vocabulary means such words that are not included in the national lexical system, but belong to one or more dialects of the Russian national language. Dialect vocabulary is non-literary vocabulary, vocabulary of oral colloquial and everyday speech of any part of the Russian people, united by a territorial community.

Dialectisms, being used in fiction, are recognized as alien to the literary language and are usually used in stylistic artistic and expressive purposes.

Words of a dialectal nature are usually called dialectal, other terms are also used: “provincialism”, “regional words”, etc. It is best to use the most common term - “dialectisms”, but with a clarification - “lexical”. Such a clarification is necessary due to the fact that dialectisms can also be of a different nature, namely phonetic (Arinka, look, L. Tolstoy is sitting on top of the Cheka) and grammatical (You will warm your back, but the scent is frozen. D. A. - L. Tolstoy).

Many of the lexical dialectisms reflect the far past of our language and are by origin common words that have survived only in separate territorial branches beremya (an armful), licorice, doldon (a smooth place for a current; cf.: palm), borosno (rye flour), belly ( belongings), goiter (there is; derivative care), plow (in the meaning of “waving”, cf.: fan), zh uda (horror, fear; derivative is creepy), hacker (miser, cf. the same root skared), fattened ( throat, mouth), etc.

All lexical dialectisms, as already noted, are outside the boundaries of the national literary speech. However, this does not mean that there were no points of contact between the two lexical systems - national and dialectal. Much of what was previously dialectal has expanded the scope of its use, has become known to the entire Russian people, and has become part of the national literary language; much of what is still the property of folk dialects is often used for pictorial purposes in fiction.

The words that came into the literary language from dialects include, for example, clumsy, snuggle, nonsense, eagle owl, plow, frail, tedious, smile, very biryuk, take a nap, hut, clumsy, mumble, hype, background, etc.

The process of enriching the national literary vocabulary through individual groups dialect words was especially intense during the formation of the national Russian language, less degree it manifested later and is manifesting at the present time.

In connection with the normativity of the literary language, in connection with the need to maintain its purity and correctness, the question of the extent and in what styles it is legitimate to use dialect words in the system of modern literary vocabulary is of particular importance. It is clear that the strengthening of dialect words in the popular vocabulary is currently possible only in two cases; 1) if the everyday life of the whole people includes an object that was known at the beginning in any one area; 2) if lexical dialectism is a good expressive and expressive synonym for a general literary word.

The use of lexical dialectisms in fiction and journalistic literature is also possible outside these conditions, as stylistic means, characterological facts that make it possible to characterize the hero's speech, stylize speech, etc. The use of lexical dialectisms outside certain artistic and expressive tasks, as well as in all other styles literary styles literary language is a violation of the norms of modern Russian literary speech.

Naturally, due to the individual style of writing, different linguistic tastes, and also depending on the genre of literature, the methods and principles of using dialect words may vary. So, Pushkin, Lermontov, Chekhov, Gorky extremely sparingly against very freely attracted her with certain stylistic goals Grigorovich, Cossack Lugansky (V. Dal), Turgenev, L. Tolstoy, from Soviet writers - Sholokhov and Gladov.

Can be observed to observe different tricks introduction of dialect vocabulary into a literary context. So, if in L. Tolstoy the newly attracted vocabulary of a dialectal nature is full-fledged in the author's dictionary, then in Turgenev it appears as alien to the general verbal context of "inclusions". If L. Tolstoy does not make any comments or explanations in the text regarding the nature and scope of the use of extraliterary words used, then Turgenev, as a rule, explains them either by reservations, or graphic means(in quotation marks, italics, etc.) and emphasizes their freshness and sideness to the general literary context.

Wed L. Tolstoy: There were already winters. But at this time, a thin woman entered the light of the fire. beautiful figure young soldier who carried the yard; It was frosty and poignant, but in the evening it began to rejuvenate; Across from Nikolai, there were greenery, etc. (words highlighted by us. -N. Sh.) - and Turgenev: After the fire, this abandoned man took shelter, or, as the Orlovites say, “snuggled” with the gardener Mitrofan; In the Orel province the last forests and squares will disappear in five years (in the author's footnote it is indicated: Large continuous masses of bushes are called squares in the Oryol province); We went to the forest, or, as we say, to "order", etc.

Unlike L. Tolstoy, Turgenev sometimes even explains the words he puts into the mouths of the characters, for example, in the story “Lgov”, the author’s speech explains the word “pothole” used by Suchok (“a deep place, a hole in a pond or in a river”), in the story “ Biryuk ”- the word used by Foma biryuk (“Biryuk is a lonely and gloomy person in the Oryol province”), etc.

Most Soviet writers follow L. Tolstoy in their use of dialect vocabulary. So, in Sholokhov's work we find: A flawed month passed over the loan in the black inaccessible sky; Near the fire they gathered to dine on a sprawled row; They carry a white crumb of snow from a mound hidden by bare spots; Cows that were not full of young brilliant green were mooing around the bases, etc.

Dialectisms as an expressive means of speech can be used only in those styles in which going beyond the normative boundaries of the vocabulary of the literary language into folk dialects is stylistically justified. In scientific and official business styles, dialectisms do not find application.

Introduction of dialect vocabulary into works journalistic style possible, but requires great care. In journalism, it is undesirable to use dialectisms along with literary vocabulary, dialectisms in the author's narration are especially unacceptable. for example : Then Shirokikh saw Lushnikov, and they returned to the gathering place, made a fire and began to shout comrades; The icebreaker was moving quickly, but Stepan hoped to slip to the right bank until the path on the river was destroyed - replacing dialectisms with common words, the sentences can be corrected as follows: ... they began to call comrades; The icebreaker moved quickly, but Stepan hoped to slip to the right bank while the ice on the river was still intact (until the ice broke).

It is absolutely unacceptable to use dialect words, the meaning of which is not quite clear to the author. So, telling about the anniversary voyage of the steam locomotive, the journalist writes: Everything was the same as 125 years ago, when the same steam engine passed along the first pass ... However, he did not take into account that the word p ervoputok means " first winter trail on fresh snow».

It should be borne in mind that the use of dialectisms is not justified even as a characterological means if the author cites the words of the characters spoken in an official setting. For example: ... It is necessary to watch the animal in a timely manner, notify the veterinary service; Chefs bring food, bridges will be washed, linen will be handed over to the laundry. And sometimes they’ll just come in for the evening (the speech of the heroes of the essays).

In such cases, dialectisms create an unacceptable diversity of speech means, because in a conversation with journalists, the villagers try to speak the literary language. The authors of the essays could write: ... It is necessary to take care of the animal in time; ... the floors will be washed; Sometimes they just come in for dinner.

The second variety of the national language is vernacular.

It consists of widespread words of colloquial everyday speech, which, due to their rudeness, deviate from exemplary literary norms of pronunciation and use. Vernacular is not territorially limited, unlike dialects. This is the speech of a poorly educated population who does not know the norms of the literary language.

The vernacular has developed as a result of mixing different dialect speech in the conditions of the city, where people from various rural areas Russia.

We note some character traits modern Russian vernacular:

1) Softening consonants before soft consonants: candy, brick, envelope;

2) Inserting a sound th or in between adjacent vowels within a word: shpien instead of a spy, kakavo, radivo, pianino;

3) Inserting a vowel inside consonant combinations: life, rubel;

4) Assimilation of consonants into verb forms: fear, like;

5) Dissimilation of consonants: dilector, collidor, tranway, seclitar, laboratory;

6) Alignment of stems when conjugating verbs: want, want, want, bake, bake;

7) Mixing noun genders: eat all the jam, what apples are sour;

8) Mixing different case forms of one word: with my sister, with my mother, with my sister;

9) Ending -OV in R.p. plurals for nouns that have a zero ending in the literary language: a lot of business, no places, came from neighbors;

10) Declension of some indeclinable foreign words: without a coat, there will be no kin, we rode by meter;

11) Using kinship terms in the function of addressing a stranger: father, mother, sister, brother;

12) Using nouns with diminutive suffixes to express politeness: do you want a tea? Are your temples straight or oblique?

13) Wide use emotional vocabulary, and in indeterminate value: play up, spit, chip, scratch: The rain is sparing; He plays the guitar from morning to evening. She speaks great English.

The third type of national language is jargon.

Jargon, in contrast to professional, denotes concepts that already have names in the national language. Jargon - a kind of colloquial speech used by a certain circle of native speakers, united by a common interest, occupation, position in society.

jargon - words peculiar to the speech of individual social groups, united on any basis (age, local, i.e. place of residence, professional).

So, for example, in the jargon of pilots, the bottom of the fuselage is called belly, training aircraft - ladybug. Sailors call grandfather not the one who is older than the others on the ship, but the chief engineer; captain - cap, minder - bloodworm b, coca - candey.

The jargon of the ofenes - wandering merchants that existed in Russia in the 19th century, was characterized by the words: eye"house", melekh"milk", sary"money", chime in"speak", tinker"build", etc.

All slang words are stylistically reduced vocabulary and are outside the literary language. They are used mainly among "their own", i.e. in dealing with people of the same social circle, which is the speaker. Therefore, the main purpose of jargon is to make speech incomprehensible to others.

Jargons, like any words of a literary language, dialect, become obsolete and disappear over time, or instead of some jargons, others appear. So, jargon is no longer found among the names of money crunch (ruble), fifth (five rubles), red (ten rubles), corner (25 rubles), piece (1000 rubles), but appeared piece (1000), lemon, grandmas and etc.

Some of the reinterpreted words of the popular vocabulary are slangy: wheelbarrow in meaning "car" molt b "quietly leave", ancestors"parents", etc.

In modern Russian, they distinguish youth jargon , or slang (from English slang - words and expressions used by people of certain professions or age groups)/ . A lot of words and expressions came from slang into colloquial speech: cheat sheet, cram, tail (academic debt), swim (do not answer well on the exam), fishing rod (satisfactory grade) etc. The emergence of many jargon is associated with the desire of young people to express their attitude to the subject, phenomenon more vividly, more emotionally. Hence such evaluative words: awesome, awesome, cool, laugh, go crazy, buzz, fuck, plow, sunbathe, etc..P. All of them are common only in oral speech and are often absent in dictionaries.

However, there are many words and expressions in slang that are understandable only to the initiated. For example, let's take a humoresque from the newspaper "University Life" (09.12.1991).

Abstract of one cool student on one downhole lecture.

Hammurabi was a sickly politician. In nature, he rolled a barrel at the surrounding Kents. First, he ran into Larsa, but specifically broke off. To fight with Larsa was not to show figurines to the sparrows, especially since their Rim-Sin was such a sophisticated closet that he glued Hammurabi's beard without any problems. However, it was not so easy to take on a show off, Larsa became purely purple for him, and he turned the arrows to Marie. He managed to throw noodles on the ears of Zimrilim, who was also a tough man, but in this case he snapped his beak. Cursing, they ran into Eshnuna, Uruk and Issin, who bounced their tail for a long time, but flew by like a flock of rasps.

For the uninitiated, such a set slang words turns out to be an insurmountable obstacle to understanding the text, so we will translate this passage into literary language.

Hammurabi was skillful politician. He pursued an expansionist policy. First, the ruler of Babylon tried to capture Larsa, but he failed. Fighting Larsa was not so easy, especially since their ruler Rim-Sin was such a dodgy diplomat that he easily forced Hammurabi to abandon his intention. But Hammurabi continued his aggressive campaigns in order to expand the territory of his state. And, leaving for a while attempts to conquer Larsa, he changed political course, and the Babylonian army rushed north. He managed to conclude an alliance with the ruler of Mari, Zimrilim, who was also a good politician, but in this case conceded military force Hammurabi. The united forces subjugated Eshnunu, Uruk and Issin, who stubbornly defended themselves, but in the end were defeated.

When comparing these so different "editions", one cannot refuse the first , saturated with jargon, in liveliness, imagery. However, the inappropriate use of slang in history lectures is obvious.

Note that slang, like jargon in general, is based on expressive use, it has a "bright color". This is what lies danger constant use of slang: the predominance of evaluative vocabulary in speech leads to the fact that the speaker prefers to evaluate rather than transmit and analyze information (he can say what he likes or not, but cannot explain why). The whole argument boils down to the pronunciation of the words: cool, cool, super, etc. Another danger of being carried away by slang is that the speaker shows an impersonal speech that is no different from the speech of his own kind. There is no speech identity.

Thus, communication with the help of slang makes primitive not only a linguistic personality, but also a social personality.

The expressiveness of jargon vocabulary contributes to the fact that words from jargons turn into common colloquial and everyday speech, not bound by strict literary norms. Most of the words that have become widespread outside of jargons can only be considered jargonisms from a genetic point of view, and at the time of their consideration they already belong to the vernacular. This explains the inconsistency of labels for jargon in explanatory dictionaries. So, in the "Dictionary of the Russian language" S.I. Ozhegova crumble in the meaning of “fail” (colloquial), in the meaning of “get caught, be caught in something” (simple), and in the Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language, ed. D.N. Ushakov, it has marks ( colloquial, from thieves' slang). Ozhegov cramming ( colloquial), and Ushakov gave a note to this word ( school slang).

Many jargons in the latest dictionaries are given with a stylistic mark ( simple.)[for example, Ozhegov: ancestors- "parents" ( simple, joke.); tail- "the remainder, the unfulfilled part of something, such as exams" ( pros t.); salaga -"newcomer, rookie, junior in relation to seniors" ( simple) and t.d.].

A special socially limited group of words in modern Russian is camp jargon used by people placed in special conditions life. He reflected the terrible life in places of detention: zek ( prisoner), veneer or shmon(search), gruel a (chowder), tower(shooting) snitch(informer), knock(deliver) and under. Such jargon finds its application in the realistic description of camp life by former "prisoners of conscience" who were able to openly recall the repressions. Let us quote one of the most talented Russian writers who did not have time to realize their creative potential for well-known reasons:

If you are called to watch, it means - expect trouble. Either a punishment cell follows, or some other dirty trick ...

... True, this time they didn’t put me in a punishment cell and didn’t even “deprive me of a stall”. “Deprive by stall” or “deprive by date” are bossy formulas that arose as a result of a tendency to laconism, this is 50% economy of expression. "Deprive the right to use the stall" or "... a date." The authorities, completely tormented by the desire for an ideal, had to resort to saving tongue twisters quite often, and, naturally, they tried to save seconds. So, something unusual awaited me. Entering, I saw several guards and at the head of them - the "Regime". After all, we were also inclined to brevity, however, for other reasons: when danger approached, it was easier and more profitable to whisper: “Regime!”, Than to say: “Deputy chief of the camp for the regime.”

There was someone else in the room besides Regime, the guards, and me, and I immediately stared at him.

(July Daniel)

From this passage, one can get an idea about the very "mechanism" of the appearance of these strange jargons. . I would like to hope that there will be no extralinguistic conditions for their consolidation in the Russian language and that they will quickly pass into the composition of passive vocabulary.

The same cannot be said for language. underworld(thieves, vagabonds, bandits). This slangy variety of language is defined by the term slang ( fr. argot - closed, inactive). Argo - secret, artificial language criminals (thieves music), known only to the initiated and also existing only in oral. Separate argotisms are spreading outside of slang: thug, mokrushnik, pen (knife), raspberry (den), split, nix, fraer, etc., but at the same time, they practically pass into the category of colloquial vocabulary and are given in dictionaries with the corresponding stylistic marks: “ colloquial", "coarsely colloquial".

The use of jargon in the literary language

The emergence and spread of jargon in speech is assessed as a negative phenomenon in the life of society and the development of the national language. However, the introduction of jargon into the literary language in exceptional cases is permissible: writers may need this vocabulary to create speech characteristics of characters or journalists describing life in the colonies. To emphasize that jargon in such cases is given "citationally", the author usually encloses them in quotation marks. For example: "Godfathers", "bumps" and others (name of a newspaper article); ...People are "lowered" by the verdict of thieves for various sins: snitching, non-payment gambling debt, disobedience to "authority", for the fact that during the investigation he "surrendered" accomplices, that he has relatives in law enforcement agencies... (Trud. 1991. Nov. 27)

Many famous writers were wary of jargon. So, I. Ilf and E. Petrov, when reissuing the novel "The Twelve Chairs", abandoned some jargon. The desire of writers to protect the literary language from the influence of jargon is dictated by the need for an uncompromising struggle against them: it is unacceptable that jargon vocabulary be popularized through fiction.

In journalistic texts, it is possible to refer to argotisms in materials on a certain topic. For example, in the section "Criminal plots":

The "cream" of the underworld - "thieves in law" ... Below are the usual thieves, who are called "denial" or "wool" in the colony. The life credo of “denial” is to counteract the demands of the administration and, conversely, to do everything that the authorities forbid ... And at the base of the colonial pyramid is the bulk of the convicts: “muzhiks”, “hard workers”. These are those who sincerely embarked on the path of correction.

On rare occasions, jargon may be used in newspaper materials, with a sharp satirical orientation.

Stylistically unjustified use of jargon

1. A stylistic defect is the appeal to jargon not in satirical contexts, dictated by the authors' desire to revive the story. So, the author was carried away by a play on words, naming his note like this : Artist Dali quite ofonarel (The note describes unusual sculpture the artist - in the form of a lamp, which gave reason to the correspondent for a pun: a lamp - ofonarel). For a reader who does not own jargon, such words become a mystery, and after all, the language of the newspaper should be accessible to everyone.

2. Journalists who write about crimes, murders and robberies in a joking tone should not get carried away with jargon. The use of slang and slang words in such cases gives the speech an inappropriate, cheerful tone. Tragic events are narrated as a fascinating incident. For modern correspondents of Moskovsky Komsomolets, this style has become familiar. Here is just one example:

On Tverskaya Street last Thursday, police officers picked up two girls who were trying to “push” a VCR to passers-by for gold. It turned out that the girls had cleaned out the apartment on Osenny Boulevard the night before. (...) The ringleader was a 19-year-old homeless woman ...

3. There is a tendency to mix styles, creating inappropriate comedy in serious publications, which leads to a decrease in the style of newspaper articles. AT recent times the use of jargon and argotism became more frequent even in serious materials, and for short notes, reports, the style, “colored” with reduced vocabulary, became common. For example:

And I will not give you a corridor

There is a new leap in the Kremlin: to give fraternal Belarus access to the sea through Kaliningrad. “We are going to come to an agreement with the Poles and get their consent to build a section of the highway through their territory,” the President of Russia said just now.

So, dialect words, vernacular, and even more jargons, as a rule, are unacceptable in speech. They can be introduced into speech only for a specific purpose, for example, as means of expression emphasizing the attitude of the speaker or writer. But this must be done carefully, with an understanding of the appropriateness and appropriateness of such an application in each specific case.