Russian literature XIX century

The 19th century is the heyday of Russian literature, which develops at a feverish pace; directions, currents, schools and fashions change with dizzying speed; every decade has its own poetics, its own ideology, its own art style. The sentimentalism of the tenth years gives way to the romanticism of the twenties and thirties; the forties see the birth of Russian idealistic “philosophy” and Slavophile teachings; the fifties - the appearance of the first novels by Turgenev, Goncharov, Tolstoy; the nihilism of the sixties is replaced by the populism of the seventies, the eighties are filled with the glory of Tolstoy, the artist and preacher; in the nineties, a new flowering of poetry begins: the era of Russian symbolism.

By the beginning of the 19th century, Russian literature, having experienced the beneficial effects of classicism and sentimentalism, was enriched with new themes, genres, artistic images and creative ways. In your new Age she entered on the wave of the pre-romantic movement, aimed at creating a national literature, original in its forms and content, and meeting the needs artistic development our people and society. It was a time when, along with literary ideas, a wide penetration into Russia of all kinds of philosophical, political, historical concepts formed in Europe at the turn of the 19th century.

In Russia romanticism as an ideological and artistic trend in the literature of the early 19th century, was generated by the deep dissatisfaction of the advanced part of Russians with Russian reality. The formation of romanticism

Associated with the poetry of V.A. Zhukovsky. His ballads are imbued with the ideas of friendship, love for the Fatherland.

Realism It was established in the 30s and 40s along with romanticism, but by the middle of the 19th century it became the dominant trend in culture. In its ideological orientation, it becomes critical realism. At the same time, the work of the great realists is permeated with the ideas of humanism and social justice.

For some time now it has become customary to talk about nationalities, demand nationality, complain about the lack of nationality in works of literature - but no one thought to determine what he meant by this word. “Nationhood in writers is a virtue that may well be appreciated by some compatriots - for others, whether it does not exist or may even seem like a vice” - this is how A.S. Pushkin

Living literature must be the fruit of a people fed, but not suppressed, by sociability. Literature is and is literary life, but its development is hampered by the one-sidedness of the imitative trend that kills the people, without which there can be no complete literary life.

In the mid-1930s, critical realism was established in Russian classical literature, opening up enormous opportunities for writers to express Russian life and Russian national character.

The special active force of Russian critical realism lies in the fact that, pushing aside progressive romanticism as the predominant trend, he mastered, preserved and continued its best traditions:

Dissatisfaction with the present, dreams of the future. Russian critical realism is notable for its bright national identity in the form of its expression. vital truth, which formed the basis of the works of Russian progressive writers, often did not fit into traditional genre-species forms. Therefore, Russian literature is characterized by frequent violations of genre-specific forms.

The most resolutely condemned the fallacies of conservative and reactionary criticism was V.G. Belinsky, who saw in Pushkin’s poetry a transition to realism, considering Boris Godunov and Eugene Onegin to be the peaks, and who abandoned the primitive identification of the people with the common people. Belinsky underestimated Pushkin's prose, his fairy tales; on the whole, he truly outlined the scale of the writer's work as the focus of literary achievements and innovative undertakings that determine further ways development of Russian literature in the 19th century.

In Pushkin's poem "Ruslan and Lyudmila" one can feel the desire for nationality, which early manifests itself in Pushkin's poetry, and in the poems "The Fountain of Bakhchisarai", " Prisoner of the Caucasus” Pushkin moves to the position of romanticism.

Pushkin's work completes the development of Russian literature at the beginning of the 19th century. At the same time, Pushkin stands at the origins of Russian literature, he is the founder of Russian realism, the creator of the Russian literary language.

The brilliant work of Tolstoy had a huge impact to world literature.

In the novels Crime and Punishment and The Idiot, Dostoevsky realistically portrayed the clash of bright, original Russian characters.

The work of M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin is directed against the autocratic-feudal system.

One of the writers of the 30s is N.V. Gogol. In the work “Evenings on a Farm near Dikanka”, the bureaucratic world is disgusting to him and he, like A.S. Pushkin, plunged into fairy world romance. Maturing as an artist, Gogol abandoned the romantic genre and moved on to realism.

The activity of M.Yu. Lermontov also belongs to this time. The pathos of his poetry lies in the moral questions about the fate and rights of the human person. The origins of Lermontov's work are connected with the culture of European and Russian romanticism. AT early years he wrote three dramas marked by the stamp of romanticism.

The novel "Heroes of Our Time" is one of the main works of literature of psychological realism of the 19th century.

Stage 1 belongs to the same time. critical activity V. G. Belinsky. He had a huge impact on the development of literature, social thought, reader tastes in Russia. He was a fighter for realism, demanded simplicity and truth from literature. The highest authorities for him were Pushkin and Gogol, to whose work he devoted a number of articles.

Having studied the letter of V. G. Belinsky to N. V. Gogol, we see that it is directed not only against Gogol's anti-social, political and moral sermons, but in many respects also against his literary judgments and assessments.

In the conditions of the post-reform life public thought Russia, which found its predominant expression in literature and criticism, increasingly persistently turned from the present to the past and future in order to identify laws and trends historical development.

Russian realism of the 1860-1870s acquired noticeable differences from Western European. In the works of many realist writers of that time, motifs appeared that foreshadowed and prepared for the shift towards revolutionary romance and socialist realism that would occur at the beginning of the 20th century. With the greatest brightness and scope, the flowering of Russian realism manifested itself in the novel and story in the second half of the 19th century. It was the novels and stories of the largest Russian artists of that time that acquired the greatest public outcry in Russia and abroad. The novels and many short stories by Turgenev, L.N. Tolstoy, Dostoevsky almost immediately after their publication received a response in Germany, France, and the USA. Foreign writers and critics felt in the Russian novel of those years a connection specific phenomena Russian reality with the processes of development of all mankind.

The heyday of the Russian novel, the desire to penetrate into the depths human soul and at the same time realize social nature society and those laws in accordance with which its development takes place, became the main distinguishing quality of Russian realism of the 1860s-1870s.

The heroes of Dostoevsky, L. Tolstoy, Saltykov-Shchedrin, Chekhov, Nekrasov thought about the meaning of life, about conscience, about justice. In the structure of the new realistic novel and the story, their hypotheses were confirmed or rejected, their concepts and ideas about the world, when confronted with reality, were too often dispelled like smoke. Their novels should be regarded as real feat artist. For the development of Russian realism, I.S. Turgenev did a lot with his novels. The greatest popularity was acquired by the novel "Fathers and Sons". It depicts a picture of Russian life at a new stage freedom movement. Last novel Turgenev's "Nov" was received by Russian critics. In those years, populism was the most significant phenomenon in public life.

The flowering of critical realism also manifested itself in Russian poetry in the 1860s and 1870s. One of the pinnacles of Russian critical realism of the 60-80s is the work of Saltykov-Shchedrin. The brilliant satirist, using allegories, personifications, skillfully posed and conducted the most acute questions modern life. Accusatory pathos is inherent in the work of this writer. The stranglers of democracy had a sworn enemy in him.

A significant role in the literature of the 80s was played by such works as “Little Things in Life”, “Poshekhonskaya Satire”. With great skill, he reproduced in them the terrible consequences of serf life and no less terrible pictures of the moral decline of post-reform Russia. “The Tale of How a Man Feeded 2 Generals” or “The Wild Landowner” are dedicated to critical issues Russian life, they went into print with great censorship difficulties.

The greatest realist writers not only reflected life in their works, but also looked for ways to transform it.

The literature of post-reform Russia, worthily continuing the traditions of critical realism, was the most philosophical and social in Europe.

Bibliography.

1. History of Russian literature of the XI-XX centuries

2. Textbook on Russian literature

(Yu.M. Lotman)

3. Great Russian writers of the 19th century

(K.V. Mochulsky)

4. Russian literature of the 19th century

(M.G. Zeldovich)

5. The history of Russian literature of the first

half of XIX century

(A.I. Revyakin)

6. History of Russian literature XIX century

(S.M. Petrova)

7. From the history of the Russian novel of the 19th century

(E.G. Babaev)

Test

1. N.V. Gogol (1809-1852)

a) the story "Overcoat"

b) the story "Viy"

c) the poem "Hanz Küchulgarten"

2. F.M. Dostoevsky (1821-1881)

a) the novel "Demons"

b) the novel “Notes from the House of the Dead”

c) the novel "Player"

d) the novel "Teenager"

3. V.A. Zhukovsky (1783-1852)

a) the ballad "Lyudmila"

b) the ballad “Svetlana”

4. A.S. Pushkin (1799-1837)

a) the poem "Ruslan and Lyudmila"

b) the drama "Boris Godunov"

c) the poem "House in Kolomna"

d) the poem "Gavriliad"

e) the story "Kirdzhali"

f) the fairy tale "Groom"

5. M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin (1826-1889)

a) the fairy tale "Sheep-not remembering"

b) fairy tale “Konyaga”

c) the fairy tale “Worker Emelya and an empty drum”

d) fairy tale “Self-sacrificing hare”

e) the novel “Gentlemen Golovlevs”

6. M.Yu. Lermantov (1814-1841)

a) the poem "Mtsyri"

b) the drama “Masquerade”

7. L.N. Tolstoy (1828-1910)

a) Anna Karenina

b) the story "Polikushka"

c) the novel "Resurrection"

Plan

1. The assertion of humanism, citizenship and nationality in the literature of the first half of the 19th century

2. Development of realistic traditions in literature

post-reform Russia.

Test

by culturologists

Topic: Russian literature XIX century

Student: Golubova Elena Alexandrovna

Teacher: Slesarev Yury Vasilievich

Faculty: accounting and statistical

Speciality: accounting, analysis and audit

Literature. 19th century turned out to be extremely fruitful and bright in the field cultural development Russia.

AT broad sense the concept of "culture" includes all patterns human achievement in various areas life and activity. Therefore, it is quite justified and appropriate to use such definitions as “everyday culture”, “political culture”, “industrial culture”, “rural culture”, “ philosophical culture”and a number of others, indicating the level of creative accomplishments in various forms of human society. And everywhere cultural shifts in the 19th century. in Russia were great and amazing.

Second half of the 19th century became a time not only for the rapid flowering of all forms and genres of creativity, but also a period when Russian culture confidently and forever took a prominent place in the cultural area of ​​human achievements. Russian painting, Russian theater, Russian philosophy, Russian literature have established their world positions thanks to a cohort of our outstanding compatriots who worked in the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries. It's hard to find enough anywhere in the world these days. educated person who would not know the names of F. M. Dostoevsky, L. N. Tolstoy, A. P. Chekhov, P. I. Tchaikovsky, S. V. Rakhmaninov, F. I. Chaliapin, K. S. Stanislavsky, A. P. Pavlova, N. A. Berdyaev. These are just some of the most striking figures who have forever remained iconic in the field of Russian culture. Without them, the cultural baggage of mankind would be noticeably poorer.

The same applies to the end of that century, when the contemporary of L. N. Tolstoy and A. P. Chekhov was the Monk John of Kronstadt (1829-1908).

Despite the spread among the nobility various forms free-thinking, skepticism and even atheism, the bulk of the population of the Russian Empire remained faithful Orthodoxy. This faith, to which the Russian people had been committed for many centuries, was not at all reflected in the fashionable ideological passions that existed in high society. Orthodoxy was the essence of what modern political science defines with the borrowed term "mentality", but what in Russian lexical treatment corresponds to the concept of "life understanding".

Orthodoxy among the people in one way or another influenced all sides creative activity the most wonderful domestic masters culture, and without taking into account the Christian impulse, it is impossible to understand why in Russia, unlike other bourgeois countries, there has never been any reverence for entrepreneurs themselves, or for their occupation. Although by the beginning of the 20th century the triumph of capitalist relations in the country was not in doubt, no one created literary or dramatic works, where the merits and merits of characters from the world of capital would be sung and extolled. Even domestic periodicals, a considerable number of which were directly or indirectly financed by the "kings of business", did not risk publishing enthusiastic praises addressed to them. Such newspapers or magazines would immediately turn into an object of angry reproach, inevitably begin to lose readers, and their days would be very quickly numbered.

In a conversation about the Russian cultural process, taking into account the above is extremely important in two main respects.

Firstly, in order to understand the spiritual structure of the Russian people as a whole, its fundamental difference from public environment modern Russia.

Secondly, in order to understand why pity for the poor, sympathy for the "humiliated and insulted" were the core motive of all Russian art and intellectual culture- from the paintings of the Wanderers to the works of Russian writers and philosophers.

This non-bourgeois public consciousness further contributed to the establishment of communist power in the country, the ideology of which was the denial of private property and private interests.

This motif manifested itself in the clearest way in the works of the two most well-known representatives national culture of the specified period - writers-prophets F. M. Dostoevsky and L. N. Tolstoy.

Life paths and creative techniques Dostoevsky and Tolstoy are completely dissimilar. They were not like-minded people, they never had not only close, but even friendly relations, and although at various periods they briefly belonged to certain literary and social groups (parties), the very scale of their personalities did not fit into the framework of narrow worldview currents. In the turning points of their biographies, in their literary works, time was focused, spiritual quests were reflected, even throwing people XIX century, who lived in an era of incessant social innovations and forebodings of the coming fateful eve.

F. M. Dostoevsky and L. N. Tolstoy were not only “masters belles-lettres”, brilliant chroniclers of times and customs. Their thought extended far beyond the ordinary, deeper than the obvious. Their desire to unravel the mysteries of life, the essence of man, to comprehend the true fate of mortals reflected in their, perhaps, highest manifestation disharmony between the mind and heart of a person, the quivering sensations of his soul and the coldly pragmatic hopelessness of reason. Their sincere desire to resolve the "cursed Russian questions" - what is a person and what is his earthly destiny - turned both writers into spiritual guides of restless natures, of which there have always been many in Russia. Dostoevsky and Tolstoy, expressing the Russian understanding of life, became not only the voices of the time, but also its creators.

F. M. Dostoevsky (1821-1881) was born into a poor family of a military doctor in Moscow. He graduated from the boarding school, and in 1843 - the main engineering school Petersburg, for some time he served as a field engineer in the engineering team of St. Petersburg. He retired in 1844, deciding to devote himself entirely to literature. He meets V. G. Belinsky and I. S. Turgenev, begins to rotate in the metropolitan literary environment. His first great work, novel poor people (1846), was a resounding success.

In the spring of 1847, Dostoevsky became a regular at the meetings of V. M. Petrashevsky’s circle, where acute social issues, including the need to overthrow the existing system. Among others, the aspiring writer was arrested in the case of the Petrashevites. First he was sentenced to death penalty, and already on the scaffold Dostoevsky and other accused were shown royal favor on the replacement of punishment with hard labor. F. M. Dostoevsky spent about four years in hard labor (1850-1854). He described his stay in Siberia in a book of essays Notes from the House of the Dead published and 1861

In the 1860-1870s. the largest literary works appeared - novels that brought Dostoevsky world fame: Humiliated and insulted Gambler, Crime and Punishment, Idiot, Demons, Brothers Karamazov.

The writer completely broke with the revolutionary hobbies of youth, realized the falsity and danger of the theories of the violent reorganization of the world. His works are permeated with reflections on the meaning of life, on the search for life paths. Dostoevsky saw the possibility of comprehending the truth of being only through faith in Christ. The moral developed from Christian socialism to Slavophilism. However, one can call him a Slavophile only with a big stretch. He was one of the founders of the ideological trend called pochvennichestvo. It declared itself in the 1860s-1870s, just at the time when the work of F. M. Dostoevsky reached its peak.

The program of the Vremya magazine, which F. M. Dostoevsky began publishing in 1861, said: We finally became convinced that we are also a separate nationality, in the highest degree original, and that our task is to create a form for ourselves, our own, native, taken from our soil. This position fully corresponded to the original Slavophile postulate. However, the universal universalism of Dostoevsky's thinking manifested itself already at that time: We foresee thatthe Russian idea, perhaps, will be a synthesis of all those ideas that Europe is developing.

Such a view found its highest embodiment in the famous speech of the writer at the celebrations in 1880 on the occasion of the opening of the monument to A. S. Pushkin in Moscow. It was in his Pushkin speech, which aroused the delight of the audience, and then became the subject of fierce controversy in the press, that F. M. Dostoevsky formulated his vision of the future world. He derived his well-being from the fulfillment of the historical mission of Russia - to unite the people of the world in a fraternal union according to the precepts of Christian love and humility:

Yes, the purpose of the Russian man is undeniably pan-European and worldwide. To become a real Russian, to become completely Russian, perhaps, means only to become a brother of all people, an all-man, if you like. Oh, all this Slavophilism and our Westernism is only one great misunderstanding among us, although historically necessary. For a real Russian, Europe and the lot of the entire great Aryan tribe are as dear as Russia itself, like the lot of its own. native land because our inheritance is universality, and not acquired by the sword, but by the power of brotherhood and our fraternal striving for the reunification of people.

Dostoevsky was not a philosopher in the exact sense of the word, he thought like an artist, his ideas were embodied in the thoughts and actions of the characters literary works. The worldview of the writer has always remained religious. Even in his youth, when he was carried away by the ideas of socialism, he remained in the bosom of the Church. One of the most important reasons his break with V. G. Belinsky, as F. M. Dostoevsky later admitted, was that he scolded Christ. Elder Zosima ("The Brothers Karamazov") expressed the idea found in many literary and journalistic works of F. M. Dostoevsky: its beauty." The unwillingness and inability to see the surrounding beauty stems from the inability of a person take possession of these gifts -“Read F. M. Dostoevsky.

All his life the writer was worried about the riddle of personality, he was possessed by a painful interest in a person, in the reserved side of his nature, the depths of his soul. Reflections on this topic are found in almost all his works of art. Dostoevsky, with consummate skill, revealed dark sides the soul of man, the forces of destruction lurking in him, boundless selfishness, the denial of moral foundations, rooted in man. However, despite negative sides, in each individual the writer saw a riddle, he considered everyone, even in the image of the most insignificant, an absolute value. Not only the demonic element in man was revealed by Dostoevsky with unprecedented strength; no less deeply and expressively shows the movements of truth and goodness in the human soul, the angelic principle in it. Faith in man, triumphantly affirmed in all the works of the writer, makes F. M. Dostoevsky the greatest humanist thinker.

Dostoevsky already during his lifetime was awarded the title of a great writer among the reading public. However, his social position, his rejection of all forms revolutionary movement, his preaching of Christian humility caused attacks not only in the radical, but also in the liberal environment.

The heyday of Dostoevsky's work came at the time of the "violence of intolerance." All those who did not share the enthusiasm for the fashionable theories of the radical reorganization of society were branded as reactionaries. It was in the 1860s. the word "conservative" has become almost abusive, and the concept of "liberal" has become a synonym for a social progressive. If before any ideological dispute in Russia almost always wore emotional character, now intolerance towards everything and everyone that did not correspond to flat diagrams"about main route progress development". They did not want to hear the voices of opponents. As the famous philosopher B.C. Solovyov about another outstanding Russian thinker K. N. Leontiev, he dared to "express his reactionary thoughts" at a time "when it could bring him nothing but ridicule." Opponents were treated, they were not objected to in essence, they served only as an object of ridicule.

Dostoevsky fully experienced the moral terror of liberal public opinion. The attacks on him, in fact, never stopped. They were initiated by V. G. Belinsky, who called the writer’s early literary and psychological experiments “nervous nonsense.” There was only one short period when the name of Dostoevsky enjoyed reverence among the "priests social progress” - the end of the 1850s, when Dostoevsky became close to the circle of M.V. Petrashevsky and became a “victim of the regime”.

However, as it turned out that in his works the writer did not follow the theory of acute sociality, the attitude of liberal-radical criticism towards him changed. After the appearance in print in 1871-1872. In the novel "Demons", where the author showed the spiritual poverty and complete immorality of the bearers of revolutionary ideas, Dostoevsky became the target of systematic attacks. The capital's newspapers and magazines regularly presented the public with critical attacks against "Dostoevsky's public delusions and his caricature of the humanist movement of the sixties." However, the creative monumentality of the writer's works, their unprecedented psychological depth were so obvious that the attacks were accompanied by many on-duty confessions of the master's artistic talents.

Such an endless treatment of the name had a depressing effect on the writer, and although the views and his creative manner he did not change, but tried, as far as possible, not to give new grounds for attacks. A noteworthy episode in this regard dates back to the early 1880s, when populist terror was spreading in the country. It happened somehow that, together with the journalist and publisher A.S. Suvorin, the writer reflected on the topic: would he tell the police if he suddenly found out that Winter Palace mined and soon there will be an explosion and all its inhabitants will die. Dostoevsky answered this question: No. And explaining his position, he remarked: Liberals would never forgive me. They would torture me, drive me to despair.

Dostoevsky considered this situation to be public opinion abnormal in the country, but change the established methods social behavior was unable to. The great writer, an old, sick man, was afraid of accusations of collaborating with the authorities, was unable to hear the roar educated mob.

Graph L. N. Tolstoy (1828-1910) was born into a wealthy noble family. Received elementary education at home, then for some time he studied at the eastern and law faculties Kazan University. He did not finish the course, he was not carried away by science.

Dropped out of university and went to active army to the Caucasus, where the decisive phase of hostilities with Shamil was unfolding. Here he spent two years (1851-1853). Service in the Caucasus enriched Tolstoy with many impressions, which he later displayed in his novels and stories.

When did it start Crimean War, Tolstoy volunteered to go to the front and took part in the defense of Sevastopol. After the end of the war, he retired, traveled abroad, then served in the administration of the Tula province. In 1861 he interrupted his service and settled on his estate Yasnaya Polyana near Tula.

There Tolstoy wrote the largest literary works - novels. War and Peace, Anna Karenina, Resurrection. In addition, he wrote many novels, short stories, dramatic and journalistic works. The writer created a diverse panorama of Russian life, depicted the customs and way of life of people dissimilar social position, showed the complex struggle between good and evil in the human soul. The novel "War and Peace" is still the most outstanding literary work about the war of 1812.

Many political and public problems attracted the attention of the writer, he responded to them with his articles. Gradually, their tone became more and more intolerant, and Tolstoy turned into a merciless critic. generally accepted norms morality and social principles. It seemed to him that in Russia and power is not and Church not that one. The Church in general turned out to be the object of his reproach. The writer does not accept the church understanding of Christianity. He is repulsed by religious dogmas and the fact that the Church has become part of social peace. Tolstoy broke with the Russian Orthodox Church. In response to this, in 1901 Holy Synod excommunicated Tolstoy from the Church, but expressed the hope that he would repent and return to her fold. There was no repentance, and the writer died without a church ceremony.

From his youth, Tolstoy experienced strong influence Rousseau's views and, as he later wrote, at the age of 16 destroyed traditional views and began to wear a medallion with a portrait of Rousseau around his neck instead of a cross. The writer passionately accepted Rousseau's idea of natural life, which determined a lot in subsequent searches and reassessments of Tolstoy. Like many other Russian thinkers, Tolstoy subjected all phenomena of the world and culture to harsh criticism from the standpoint of subjective morality.

In the 1870s the writer went through a long spiritual crisis. His consciousness is fascinated by the mystery of death, before the inevitability of which everything around him takes on the character of an insignificant. Wishing to overcome oppressive doubts and fears, Tolstoy tries to break his ties with the familiar environment and strives for close communication with ordinary people. It seems to him that with them, beggars, wanderers, monks, peasants, schismatics and prisoners, he will gain true faith, knowledge, what is the true meaning of human life and death.

The Yasnaya Polyana count begins a period of simplification. He rejects all manifestations modern civilization. His merciless and uncompromising rejection concerns not only the institutions of the state, the Church, the courts, the army, and bourgeois economic relations.

In his boundless and passionate nihilism, the writer has reached maximalist limits. He rejects art, poetry, theater, science. According to his ideas, good has nothing to do with beauty, aesthetic pleasure is pleasure of a lower order. Art in general is only fun.

Tolstoy considered it blasphemy to put art and science on the same level as good. Science and philosophy, he wrote, interpret about what you want, but not about that. how a person himself can be better and how he can live better. Modern science has a mass of knowledge that we do not need. But to the question of the meaning of life, it cannot say anything and even considers this question to be outside its competence.

Tolstoy tried to give his own answers to these burning questions. The world order of people, according to Tolstoy, should be based on love for one's neighbor, on non-resistance to evil by violence, on mercy and material unselfishness. The most important condition the reign of the light of Christ on earth Tolstoy considered the abolition of private property in general and private ownership of land in particular. Addressing Nicholas II in 1902, Tolstoy wrote: Destruction of the right land ownership and there is, in my opinion, that immediate goal, the achievement of which the Russian government must make it its task in our time.

The sermons of Leo Tolstoy did not go unanswered. Among the so-called enlightened public, dominated by critical assessments and a skeptical attitude towards reality, the graphanihilist had many admirers and followers who intended to bring Tolstoy's social ideas to life. They created small colonies, which were called cultural sketes, tried to change the moral self-improvement and honest work the world. The Tolstoyans refused to pay taxes, to serve in the army, did not consider it necessary to consecrate the church marriage, did not baptize their children, did not send them to schools. The authorities persecuted such communities, some active Tolstoyans were even brought to trial. At the beginning of the XX century. Tolstoy's movement in Russia almost came to naught. However, it gradually spread outside of Russia. Tolstoy farms originated in Canada South Africa, USA, UK.

I. S. Turgenev (1818-1883) merit belongs to the creation of socio-psychological novels in which the personal fate of the characters was inextricably linked with the fate of the country. He was consummate master in revealing the inner world of man in all its complexity. Creativity Turgenev had a huge impact on the development of Russian and world literature.

I. S. Turgenev came from a rich and old noble family. In 1837 he graduated Faculty of Philology Petersburg University. He continued his education abroad. Turgenev later recalled: I studied philosophy, ancient languages, history and studied Hegel with particular zeal. For two years (1842-1844) Turgenev served as an official in the Ministry of Internal Affairs, but interest in service career did not show. He was fascinated by literature. His first work, a dramatic poem Steno, he wrote in 1834

At the end of the 1830s. young Turgenev's poems began to appear in the journals Sovremennik and Otechestvennye zapiski. These are elegiac thoughts about love, permeated with motives of sadness and longing. Most of these poems received high audience recognition. (Ballad, Alone again, alone..., Foggy morning, gray morning...). Later, some of Turgenev's poems were set to music and became popular romances.

In the 1840s the first dramas and poems of Turgenev appeared in print, and he himself became an employee of the social and literary magazine Sovremennik.

In the mid 1840s. Turgenev became close to a group of writers, leaders of the so-called "natural school" - N. A. Nekrasov, I. A. Goncharov, D. V. Grigorovich and others, who tried to give literature a democratic character. The heroes of their works, these writers made primarily serfs.

The first issue of the updated Sovremennik was published in January 1847. Turgenev’s short story “Khor and Kalinich” became a real decoration of the magazine, which opened a whole cycle of works under common name Hunter's Notes.

After their publication in 1847-1852. All-Russian glory came to the writer. The Russian people, Russian peasants are shown in the book with such love and respect as never before in Russian literature.

In subsequent years, the writer created several novels and short stories outstanding in their artistic merit - Rudin, Noble Nest, On the eve, Fathers and sons, Smoke. They skillfully depict the way of life of the nobility, show the emergence of new social phenomena and figures, in particular populists. Turgenev's name has become one of the most revered names in Russian literature. His works were notable for their sharp polemic, they raised critical issues human being, they outlined the deep view of the writer on the essence of ongoing events, the desire to understand the nature and aspiration new people(nihilists) who entered the arena of social political life countries.

The breadth of thinking, the ability to comprehend the life and historical perspective, the belief that a person’s life should be fulfilled higher meaning, marked the work of one of the most remarkable Russian writers and playwrights - A. P. Chekhov (1860-1904), this subtlest psychologist and master of subtext, who so peculiarly combined humor and lyricism in his works.

A.P. Chekhov was born in the city of Taganrog in merchant family. He studied at the Taganrog gymnasium. Continued education at medical faculty Moscow University, which he graduated in 1884. He worked as a doctor in the Moscow province. literary activity started with feuilletons and short stories published in humor magazines.

The largest and most famous works Chekhov began to appear from the end of the 1880s. These are novels and stories Steppe,"The lights", House with a mezzanine, Boring story, Chamber of MB, Guys, In the ravine, About love, Ionych, Lady with a dog, Jumper, Duel, essay books From Siberia and Acute Sakhalin.

Chekhov is the author of remarkable dramatic works. His plays Ivanov, Uncle Vanya, Seagull, Three sisters, Cherrygarden staged on stages all over the world. In the stories of the writer about the fates individual people hidden deep philosophical overtones. Chekhov's ability to sympathize, his love for people, the ability to penetrate into the spiritual nature of man, his interest in pressing issues development human society made creative heritage the writer is still relevant today. Art. In 1870, an event occurred in Russia that had a powerful impact on the development visual arts: arose Association of Traveling Art Exhibitions, played important role in the development of democratic painting and its opposition to salon-academic art. it was social organization which the government did not fund. The partnership was organized by young artists, for the most part graduates of the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts, who did not share aesthetic principles Academy leadership. They no longer wanted to portray "eternal beauty", focus on the "classical examples" of European art. Reflecting the general societal upsurge of the 1860s, artists sought to express the complexity modern world, to bring art closer to life, to convey the aspirations and moods of wide public circles, to show living people, their concerns and aspirations. Almost all the outstanding artists of Russia were creatively associated with the Association of the Wanderers.

Over the next decades, the Association of the Wanderers (usually they were called simply Wanderers) organized many exhibitions, which were not only shown in some place, but also transported (moved) around different cities. The first such exhibition took place in 1872.

The central figure of Russian art of the 1860s. became one of the organizers of the Association of the Wanderers, teacher, writer V. G. Perov (1833-1882). He studied painting at the Arzamas Drawing School, then at the Moscow School of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture and at the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts. At the end of the course in 1869 he received a scholarship and improved his skills in Paris. Already in the 1860s. Perov declared himself as a great realist artist, his paintings were distinguished by a sharp social content. These are Sermon in the village

Tea drinking in Mytishchi, near Moscow Seeing off the deceased, “Troika. Apprentice artisans are carrying water, “The last tavern at the outpost and others. The artist's painting subtly conveyed his compassion for people crushed by need, who survived grief.

Perov - master of lyrical paintings (Birdcatcher and Hunters on a halt) and fabulous images (Snow Maiden). The golden fund of Russian art includes portraits of the playwright A. N. Ostrovsky, writer F. M. Dostoevsky, performed by the artist commissioned by P. M. Tretyakov for the portrait gallery representing "people dear to the nation". Perov also addressed historical topics, his most famous such painting is Court of Pugachev.

I. N. Kramskoy (1837-1887) was born in a poor family. From 1857 he studied at the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts. In 1863, he became a troublemaker at the Academy, leading a group of 14 graduate students who refused to participate in a competition that required paintings only on mythological themes. The protesters left the Academy and created the Artel of Mutual Aid, which later became the basis of the Association of the Wanderers.

Kramskoy was a wonderful portrait master and captured on his canvases many famous people Russia, those who are usually called the rulers of the thoughts of their era.

These are portraits M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, L. N. Tolstoy, N. A. Nekrasov. P. M. Tretyakova, S. P. Botkin, I. I. Shishkin and others. Kramskoy also painted portraits of ordinary peasants.

In 1872, a painting by Kramskoy appeared at the First Traveling Exhibition Christ in the wilderness which became a program not only for the artist himself, but for all the Wanderers. The canvas depicts Jesus Christ, who is in deep thought. enlightened, calm look Christ attracts the attention of the viewer.

A close interest in the gospel theme runs through all the work of another of the founders of the Russian Wanderers - N.N.Ge (1831-1894). in the picture The Last Supper a striking play of light and shadow achieves the opposition of a group of apostles and the figure of Judas, located in a dense shadow. gospel story allowed the artist to depict the conflict different worldviews. This painting was followed What is truth? Christ and Pilate, Judgment of the Sanhedrin, Guilty of death!, Golgotha, Crucifixion and etc.

In a portrait L.N. Tolstoy the artist managed to convey the work of thought of a brilliant writer.

Ge exhibited a painting at the First Traveling Exhibition “Peter I interrogates Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich in Peterhof. The viewer feels the tense silence of father and son. Peter is sure of the fault of the prince. The conflict between the king and the heir to the throne is depicted at the moment of the highest intensity.

Famous battle painter bjb. Vereshchagin (1842-1904) participated in military operations of that time more than once. Based on his impressions of the events in the Turkestan region, he created a picture Apotheosis of war. The pyramid of skulls cut with sabers looks like an allegory of war. On the frame of the picture - the text: Dedicated to all the great conquerors, past, present and future.

Vereshchagin owns a series of large battle paintings in which he acted as a true reformer of this genre.

Vereshchagin turned out to be a participant in the Russian-Turkish campaign of 1877-1878. Based on sketches and studies performed on the scene, his famous "Balkan Series" was created. One of the paintings in this series (“Shipka - Sheinovo. Skobelev near Shipka) the scene of Skobelev's solemn greeting of the victorious Russian regiments is relegated to the background. In the foreground of the canvas, the viewer sees a snow-covered field dotted with the dead. This mournful image was intended to remind people of the bloody cost of victory.

One of the most popular Russian landscape painters can be called I. I. Shishkin (1832-1898). A painter and a remarkable connoisseur of nature, he approved the forest landscape in Russian art - luxurious mighty oak forests and pine forests, forest distances, deaf wilds. The artist's canvases are characterized by monumentality and majesty. Expanse, space, land, rye. God's grace, Russian wealth- this is how the artist described his canvas Rye, in which the scale of Shishkin's spatial solutions was especially clearly manifested. Ceremonial portraits of Russian nature became Pine trees illuminated by the sun, Forest distances, Morning in pine forest, Oak trees and others. Samson of Russian painting called famous historian art V. V. Stasov Ya. E. Repin (1844-1930).

This is one of the most versatile artists who succeeded with equal brilliance in portraits, genre scenes, landscapes and large canvases on historical themes.

I. B. Repin was born into a poor family of a military settler in the city of Chuguev, Kharkov province, and received his first drawing skills from local Ukrainian icon painters. In 1863, he moved to St. Petersburg and entered the Academy of Arts, where Repin's first mentor V. I. Surik , turned out to be I.N. Kramskoy. Repin graduated from the Academy in 1871 and, as a capable graduate, received an execution scholarship for a creative trip to France and Italy.

Already in the 1870s. Repin's name becomes one of the largest, most popular Russian painters. Each of his new picture causes lively interest public and heated debate. Among the most famous paintings of the artist are Barge Haulers on the Volga, Procession in the Kursk province, Ivan the Terrible and his son Ivan November 16, 1581, the Cossacks write a letter Turkish sultan, Portrait of M. P. Mussorgsky, “The ceremonial meeting State Council”, Portrait of K. P. Pobedonostsev, They did not expect and others. Repin on his canvases captured the panorama of the life of the country, showed bright folk characters, the mighty forces of Russia.

AT. I. Surikov (1848-1916) proved to be a born historical painter. A Siberian by origin, Surikov studied in St. Petersburg at the Academy of Arts, and after graduating from the Academy he settled in Moscow. His first large canvas was Morning execution. Then followed Menshikov in Vera call, Boyarynya Morozova, Ermak's Conquest of Siberia Suvorov's Crossingover the Alps in 1799 and others. The artist drew the plots and images of these paintings from the depths of Russian history.

The Patriotic War of 1812 and the patriotic upsurge associated with it gave a powerful impetus to the development of Russian national culture. The most educated estate in Russia was then the nobility. Most of the cultural figures of this time are from the nobility or people who are somehow connected with the noble culture.

The ideological struggle in literature at the beginning of the century was between the Conversation group, which united conservative, protective-minded nobles, and progressive writers who were part of the Arzamas circle. Early 20s big role literature was played by poets and writers associated with the Decembrist movement or ideologically close to it. They waged a struggle against the monarchist-protective camp. After the defeat of the Decembrist uprising, in the era of a dull reaction, Pushkin defended the progressive principles of Russian literature in the fight against Bulgarin and Grech, who attacked progressive literature in their organs - the Severnaya Pchela newspaper and the Son of the Fatherland magazine. Bulgarin was close to the III branch. Together with Grech, he was a direct agent of the government.

The Greatest Prose Writer of the End XVIII-early XIX century, writer and historiographer Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin (1766-1826) in his youth was no stranger to liberalism. His "Letters from a Russian Traveler" played an important role in acquainting readers with Western European life and culture. The most famous of his stories is Poor Lisa» (1792) tells touching story love of a nobleman and a peasant woman. “And peasant women know how to feel,” this maxim contained in the story, despite its moderation, testified to the humane direction of the views of its author. AT early XIX in. Karamzin becomes a conservative. The writer's new views were reflected in his work "History of the Russian State".

The works of Vasily Andreevich Zhukovsky (1783-1852) amounted to milestone in the development of Russian lyrics - a romantic stage. Zhukovsky experienced a deep disappointment Enlightenment XVIII century, and this disappointment turned his thought to the Middle Ages. Like a true romantic, Zhukovsky considered the blessings of life to be transient and saw happiness only in immersion in inner world person. A brilliant translator, Zhukovsky opened the Western European romantic poetry. Particularly remarkable are his translations from Schiller and the English Romantics.

In contrast to the romanticism of Zhukovsky, the lyrics of K. N. Batyushkov (1787-1855) were of an earthly, sensual nature, imbued with a bright view of the world, harmonious and graceful.

Ivan Andreevich Krylov (1769-1844) began his literary career as a journalist and playwright of the radical educational trend. However, his main merit is the creation of a classic Russian fable. Krylov often took the plots of his fables from other fabulists, primarily from La Fontaine. But at the same time, he always remained a deeply national poet, reflecting in his fables the peculiarities of the Russian national character and mind. Krylov opposes the privileges of the nobility and the arbitrariness of the strong, mocks officials, judges the characters of his fables from the point of view of the people. He brought the fable genre to a high naturalness and simplicity.

Many writers and poets were among the Decembrists. The civic motives of classicism, the appeal to the heroic images of Cato and Brutus were intertwined with romantic motives, interest in national antiquity, in the freedom-loving traditions of Novgorod and Pskov. by the most major poet among the Decembrists was Kondraty Fedorovich Ryleev (1795-1826). The author of tyrannical poems, such as "Citizen" and "To the temporary worker", he also wrote a series of patriotic "Dooms". Under the influence of Pushkin, Ryleev created the romantic poem Voinarovsky, which depicts tragic fate Ukrainian patriot.

Ideologically, they were connected with Decembrism in certain periods their lives are two greatest writer of that time - Griboyedov and Pushkin.

The merits of Alexander Sergeevich Griboyedov (1795-1829) to Russian literature are based on one work. “Griboedov did his own thing - he wrote “Woe from Wit”,” - with these words Pushkin summed up brief life his remarkable contemporary.

In "Woe from Wit" (1824) there is no intrigue in the sense that French comedians understood it, no happy ending in the final. The comedy is built on the opposition of Chatsky to other characters that form the Famus circle, the noble society of Moscow. The struggle of an advanced man (Herzen directly calls Chatsky a “Decembrist”) against the bar, parasites and depraved people who have lost their national dignity and crawl before everything French, stupid martinets and persecutors of enlightenment ends in the defeat of the hero. But the public pathos of Chatsky's speeches reflected the full force of indignation that had accumulated among the progressive Russian youth, their boundless hatred of serfdom. By satirically sharpening real features, Griboyedov created relief types in which he outlined not only social traits, but also individual ("portrait", as he himself said) features. He endowed each character with sharp, almost epigrammatic lines that immediately became proverbs.

The 19th century is called the "Golden Age" of Russian poetry and the century of Russian literature on a global scale. It should not be forgotten that the literary leap that took place in the 19th century was prepared by all means. literary process 17-18 centuries. The 19th century is the time of the formation of the Russian literary language, which took shape largely thanks to A.S. Pushkin.
But the 19th century began with the heyday of sentimentalism and the formation of romanticism. Specified literary trends found expression primarily in poetry. Poetic works of poets E.A. Baratynsky, K.N. Batyushkova, V.A. Zhukovsky, A.A. Feta, D.V. Davydova, N.M. Yazykov. Creativity F.I. Tyutchev's "Golden Age" of Russian poetry was completed. Nonetheless, central figure of this time was Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin.
A.S. Pushkin began his ascent to the literary Olympus with the poem "Ruslan and Lyudmila" in 1920. And his novel in verse "Eugene Onegin" was called an encyclopedia of Russian life. Romantic poems by A.S. Pushkin " Bronze Horseman"(1833)," The Fountain of Bakhchisaray", "Gypsies" opened the era of Russian romanticism. Many poets and writers considered A. S. Pushkin their teacher and continued the traditions of creating literary works laid down by him. One of these poets was M.Yu. Lermontov. Known for it romantic poem"Mtsyri", the poetic story "Demon", many romantic poems. Interestingly, Russian poetry of the 19th century was closely connected with the social and political life of the country. Poets tried to comprehend the idea of ​​their special purpose. The poet in Russia was considered a conductor of divine truth, a prophet. The poets urged the authorities to listen to their words. Vivid examples understanding the role of the poet and influence on the political life of the country are the poems of A.S. Pushkin "Prophet", ode "Liberty", "The Poet and the Crowd", a poem by M.Yu. Lermontov "On the Death of a Poet" and many others.
Along with poetry, prose began to develop. The prose writers of the beginning of the century were influenced by the English historical novels of W. Scott, whose translations were very popular. The development of Russian prose of the 19th century began with prose works A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol. Pushkin, under the influence of English historical novels, creates the story " Captain's daughter”, where the action takes place against the backdrop of grandiose historical events: at the time Pugachev rebellion. A.S. Pushkin did a colossal job exploring this historical period. This work was largely political in nature and was directed to those in power.
A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol identified the main artistic types that would be developed by writers throughout the 19th century. This is an artistic type extra person”, an example of which is Eugene Onegin in the novel by A.S. Pushkin, and the so-called type " little man", which is shown by N.V. Gogol in his story "The Overcoat", as well as A.S. Pushkin in the story " Stationmaster».
Literature inherited its publicism and satirical character from the 18th century. In the prose poem N.V. Gogol's Dead Souls, the writer in a sharp satirical manner shows a swindler who buys dead Souls, different types landlords who are the embodiment of various human vices(the influence of classicism affects). In the same plan, the comedy "The Inspector General" is sustained. are full satirical images and works by A. S. Pushkin. Literature continues to satirically depict Russian reality. The trend of depicting vices and shortcomings Russian society – feature all Russian classical literature. It can be traced in the works of almost all writers of the 19th century. At the same time, many writers implement the satirical trend in a grotesque form. Examples of grotesque satire are the works of N.V. Gogol "The Nose", M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin "Gentlemen Golovlevs", "History of one city".
FROM mid-nineteenth century, the formation of Russian realistic literature, which is created against the backdrop of a tense socio-political situation that developed in Russia during the reign of Nicholas I. A crisis in the feudal system is brewing, contradictions between the authorities and the common people are strong. There is a need to create a realistic literature that sharply reacts to the socio-political situation in the country. literary critic V.G. Belinsky marks a new realistic trend in literature. His position is being developed by N.A. Dobrolyubov, N.G. Chernyshevsky. A dispute arises between Westernizers and Slavophiles about the paths of Russia's historical development.
Writers turn to the socio-political problems of Russian reality. The genre of the realistic novel is developing. Their works are created by I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, I.A. Goncharov. Socio-political and philosophical problems prevail. Literature is distinguished by a special psychologism.
The development of poetry somewhat subsides. It is worth noting poetic works Nekrasov, who was the first to introduce into poetry social issues. His poem “Who is living well in Russia?” is known, as well as many poems, where the hard and hopeless life of the people is comprehended.
The literary process of the late 19th century discovered the names of N. S. Leskov, A.N. Ostrovsky A.P. Chekhov. The latter proved to be a master of the small literary genre- a story, and also an excellent playwright. Competitor A.P. Chekhov was Maxim Gorky.
The end of the 19th century was marked by the formation of pre-revolutionary sentiments. The realist tradition was beginning to fade. It was replaced by the so-called decadent literature, hallmarks which were mysticism, religiosity, as well as a premonition of changes in the socio-political life of the country. Subsequently, decadence grew into symbolism. From this opens new page in the history of Russian literature.

In the 19th century national culture Russian empire was able to achieve great heights in art and literature, as well as in many other areas, which are now commonly called Classics. It was rightly called the golden age of Russian literature. This century has become a legislator literary style of the Russian Empire, which rapidly began to break into the literature of world significance. The golden age of literature brought up many talented writers. In the 19th century, the glorious literary language. A great contribution to this design was made mainly by Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin. This literary language received a dawn in sentimentalism, which gradually began to smoothly turn into romanticism, which manifests itself in poetry. Today, such a famous literary genius would be called simply - Star.

It was in 1820 that Pushkin's triumphal ascent to the Olympus of literary research began. Then he wrote his famous poetry - "Ruslan and Lyudmila", "Eugene Onegin". These novels are poetic forms became a kind of encyclopedia of the life of Russia in the 19th century. The era of literary romanticism of the Russian Empire Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin began by writing a poem - "The Bronze Horseman", "Gypsies", and also "The Fountain of Bakhchisaray". Pushkin was practically a role model and a kind of teacher for most novice writers and experienced critics. Those traditions of writing, which he once laid down in literature, began to be continued by all writers who created their works after Pushkin. Among these writers who followed Pushkin was Lermontov. The poetry of Russia, at that time, was rather obscurely connected with both the social and political life of Russia. In each work, the authors, as it were, tried to fully reveal the idea that this particular work has a secret of a special purpose. They tried to do everything so that the authorities listened as much as possible to the words they write. Every worthy poet of that century was like a prophet who is trying to convey the truth of divine power to the people. This style is found in Pushkin's poems - "Liberty", "The Poet and the Crowd", as well as many other poems. Lermontov had this work - "On the death of a poet." Historical novels England, at that time played an important role in the development of Russian literature. Under their influence, Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin decides to write a story called "The Captain's Daughter".

Throughout the 19th century, the main terms of all artistic writings were - the Personality of a small person and the Personality of a person unnecessary to anyone.

Modern literature has inherited its satire and publicism precisely from the 19th century. These subtleties of writing can be seen in Gogol's work "The Nose", "Dead Souls", as well as in the comedy "Inspector General" of the same name.

In the middle of the 19th century, the mass formation of realism began in literary works writers. She quickly reacted to situations of a political nature in Russia. Haters of the Slavs and western population began a rather contentious dispute over the development historical culture countries.

Here begins the development of a realistic genre in the novel. In the literature of the 19th century, one can well consider a certain psychologism, as well as feel the philosophy, hear problem situations in the political life of the country. Poetry gradually begins to fade, but then the dawn of Nekrasov comes. He describes sad and hard life Russian people in his play “To Whom in Russia to Live Well”

At the end of the century, the country heard about such writers as Anton Pavlovich Chekhov, A.N. Ostrovsky, M. Gorky. In their style of writing, the mood of the coming revolution is already well felt. Gradually, the tradition of writing style, followed by all writers before and after Pushkin, began to fade. Now the decadent literary thread began to prevail. It contained mysterious mysticism, religious notices, and also felt well the future changes in the political life of the country. Gradually, everything began to develop into a kind of symbolism.