Scientific sociologist, scientific sociologist ... Spelling Dictionary

A scientist who studies sociology or the social sciences. Complete dictionary foreign words that have come into use in Russian. Popov M., 1907. sociologist specialist in sociology. New dictionary of foreign words. by EdwART, 2009 … Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language

SOCIOLOGIST, sociologist, husband. Scientist, specialist in sociology. Dictionary Ushakov. D.N. Ushakov. 1935 1940 ... Explanatory Dictionary of Ushakov

Exist., number of synonyms: 1 scientist sociologist (1) ASIS Synonym Dictionary. V.N. Trishin. 2013 ... Synonym dictionary

Modernization- (Modernization) Modernization is the process of changing something in accordance with the requirements of modernity, the transition to more advanced conditions, by introducing various new updates. Modernization theory, types of modernization, organic ... ... Encyclopedia of the investor

- (Quételet) (1796 1874), Belgian scientist, positivist sociologist; one of the creators of scientific statistics, foreign corresponding member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences (1847). Established that some mass social phenomena (fertility, mortality, ... ... encyclopedic Dictionary

Petrazhytsky, Lev Iosifovich Petrazhitsky, Lev Iosifovich Petrazhitsky, Lev Iosifovich (Polish Leon Petrażycki) (1867 1931) Russian and Polish scientist, sociologist, jurist, philosopher, deputy I State Duma... Wikipedia

- (1796 1874) Belgian scientist, positivist sociologist; one of the creators of scientific statistics, foreign corresponding member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences (1847). He established that some mass social phenomena (fertility, mortality, crime, etc.) Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

The pseudonym of the famous writer Alexei Maksimovich Peshkov (see). (Brockhaus) Gorky, Maxim (real name Peshkov, Alexei Maxim.), famous novelist, b. March 14, 1869 in Nizhny. Novgorod, s. upholsterer, apprentice paint shop. (Vengerov) ... ...

- (05/02/1921 06/16/1987) scientist sociologist; Dr. philos. sciences, prof. Genus. in the village of Pyskovo of the Nerlsky district in the Kalinin region, in peasant family. In 1939 he entered the East. f t MSU. The study was interrupted by military service, participation in the Great Fatherland. war. AT… … Big biographical encyclopedia

Books

• Business pendulum. Between Order and Prison, Bronstein Viktor Vladimirovich. The author of the book is not only a member of the Union of Writers of Russia, but also a sociologist, as well as an entrepreneur with extensive experience in industry and business, a passionate collector of modern ...
• Labyrinths of fate: between the soul and business, Bronstein Viktor Vladimirovich. On the pages of this book, the author, a member of the Writers' Union of Russia, a sociologist, a businessman and a passionate collector, continues the conversation started in the book Business Pendulum: Between the Order and…

Let's give brief analysis views of individual Russian sociologists.

Nikolai Konstantinovich Mikhailovsky (1842-1904) - one of the leaders of Russian positivism, the author of the "subjective method" in sociology. The harmonious system of his views into an integral worldview contributed to the fact that at the end of the 70s he took one of the first places in Russian social thought.

N.K. Mikhailovsky believed that one should not treat society as an aggregate physical bodies and phenomena. A sociologist, unlike a naturalist, a biologist, cannot build his science, the science of society, impartially, since the object of this science is a feeling person, a real person, therefore a sociologist - "observer" cannot but put himself "in the position of the observed."

Mikhailovsky was a bright individualist. For him, the criteria for the good of a real person became that cornerstone on which he built his entire system of sociological views. Personality, the scientist argued, is significant only in public environment individual and society complement each other. Any suppression of the individual harms society, and the suppression of the public harms the individual. The personality itself is a person who tries to synthesize personal benefit with the public one.

Mikhailovsky denied the right of "higher harmony" to society - an organism, if a person is made only a means for the prosperity of this organism. Development along the organic path with its division of labor transforms real person in "toe". For Mikhailovsky, it is “desirable” that society take the path of progressive development, development “above the organic”, where the breadth and integrity of the individual are ensured not by the division of labor, but by “cooperation of simple cooperation”.

In sociology, Mikhailovsky believed, it is necessary to use not only the objective, but also subjective method research, categories of morality and justice. AT real world it is necessary to act in accordance with the goals of the "common ideal", and not mechanically transfer to human society causation in nature. Only by defining the goal, it is possible to determine the ways of practical activity, disregard for goals and ideals inevitably leads to ultra-individualism, to a view of life as a process where everyone cares only about himself, behaves as he pleases, not interested in public affairs, not striving to to the social ideal, and consequently to their own perfection and to the perfection of society as a whole. Objectivism is the position of pure reason, subjectivism is a moral judgment free will, and here one does not negate, but only complements the other. In his formula of progress, Mikhailovsky includes a subjective-ethical moment, considering fair and reasonable only that which brings the personality closer to its comprehensive development and integrity.

One of the directions of neo-Kantianism in Russian sociology was represented by "legal Marxism". Among the theorists of this direction important place occupied by Pyotr Berngardovich Struve (1870-1944). It was he who first overcame the dominant materialism. and positivism, the first to introduce the Russian public to German neo-Kantian criticism and idealism. P.B. Struve believed that the goal of development is comprehensive developed personality, a public organization- a means to achieve this goal, if "modern civilized humanity" wants to follow the path of progress. Only possible form social progress, according to Struve, is the path of reform. The works of P.B. Struve "Metaphysics and Sociology", "Social and economic history Russia from ancient times to ours, in connection with the development of Russian culture and the growth Russian statehood"define sociology as a system of "free interaction between individual concrete beings, carriers of spontaneous activity."

Pitirim Alexandrovich Sorokin (1889-1968), one of the most prominent representatives of neo-positivism, big influence on the development of the entire sociology of the 20th century. By his own admission, in Russia he began to explore the essence of such a phenomenon as social conditions. In his main work, the two-volume System of Sociology, he formulates theoretical basis his system - the theory " social stratification" and "social mobility" (he also introduced these terms into scientific circulation).

Sorokin considered the basis of sociological analysis social behavior, social interaction. He defines the interaction of individuals as a generic model of both a social group and society as a whole. Social groups themselves are divided by him into unorganized and organized. His special attention is focused on the analysis of the hierarchical structure of an organized social group. Within the groups there are strata (layers) distinguished by economic, political and professional characteristics. Stratification exists both in a non-democratic society and in a society with a "thriving democracy." In any unorganized group, it is possible to change the forms of stratification - to soften or toughen it, but it cannot be "cancelled", destroyed.

Along with the stratification of P.A. Sorokin recognizes the presence in society and social mobility. It can be of two types - horizontal and vertical.

Social mobility means moving from one social position to another, a kind of "elevator" for moving both within the social group and between them.

Nikolai Ivanovich Kareev (1850-1931) - one of the largest Russian scientists late XIX in. - the beginning of the twentieth century. Historian, philosopher, sociologist, educator and public figure. The personality of N.I. is also unique. Kareeva: he was born under serfdom, survived three kings and one "leader", saw wars and revolutions and died after reading Stalin's article "Dizziness from Success".

"Mr. Kareev's writing is excellent." Karl Marx commented on him in one of his letters. This review long time served Kareev as a kind of talisman protecting him from the "attacks" of the Soviet regime. It was only at the very end of his life that they gave him a "dressing down" and began to seem to get there, but he - in anticipation of a "new attack" - died on February 18, 1931.

Bibliography of N.I. Kareev is impressive, but even more impressive is his archive, part of which is stored in the Department of Manuscripts of the Russian state library. The archive contains materials of a very extensive correspondence of the scientist, manuscripts of his books and articles, and, most importantly, manuscripts and typescripts already finished essays never published during his lifetime.

Alexey Knorre became interested in sociology at school, then entered St. Petersburg State University, studied automatic text analysis, and now works at the Institute for Law Enforcement Problems of the European University in St. Petersburg. About how to study the functioning of laws not on paper, but in life, and what crime statistics say about work law enforcement- in the new issue of the Young Scientists column on T&P.

Where he studied: St. Petersburg State University(undergraduate), European University in St. Petersburg (master's degree)

On the this moment: Junior Research Fellow at the Institute for Law Enforcement Problems at EUSP

What he studies: sociology of law and criminal statistics

Aleksey Knorre is a 2015 Science Slam finalist.

I decided to become a sociologist around the beginning of the 11th grade. It was a conscious decision: I was lucky to communicate in time with people who, by their example, showed that Social sciencies- it's important, interesting and cool.

Firstly, I did well in school and got into the system thanks to that. additional education- with different trainings and summer schools. At some point, one of these schools turned out to be the summer module of the School of Liberal Education - one of the projects that was successful in the mid-2000s, worked throughout the country and allowed participants to find out that there is something outside their provincial city: global economy, moving labor markets, different cultures. There I learned to enjoy public speaking. My biggest influence then was Mikhail Nemtsev, a social philosopher and historian. Now he teaches at the RANEPA in Moscow and runs the Internet portal Gefter.ru. He was (and is) remarkably good at speaking and writing in such a way that, on the one hand, it was not boring, and, on the other hand, it was devoted to an important topic in social science. Secondly, I somehow succeeded with humanitarian subjects- probably because at school they are always the simplest: a few stupid definitions, and you only need to reduce them to a more or less coherent text. From this, in grades 9-10, I thought that I would study political science (not really understanding what it is, except for nothing meaningful words about the study of the political system of society). Then I read Igor Kon's book "80 Years of Solitude". I think it most of all influenced my ideas about what to do, and slowly political science was transformed into sociology.

Thirdly, I was lucky that I had the Internet: although the popular science genre was just emerging, the Polit.ru website contained transcripts of public lectures by various scientists, which then shocked and captured the imagination. There was also (and is) the site "Elements.ru", which intelligibly told about modern scientific research.

After school, I entered St. Petersburg State University at the Faculty of Sociology, where I received a bachelor's degree. I have mixed feelings about this experience. One side, general level teaching there was monstrous: dreary teachers, speaking from a piece of paper to freshmen who had just arrived and did not understand anything, boring and empty words, without drive and understanding why all this is needed and why it needs to be done. I (and, I suspect, many others) cringed at this, and I looked for the opportunity to learn what sociology is from other people.

On the other hand, St Petersburg University gave me, an ordinary guy from the outskirts of Krasnoyarsk, the opportunity to live for minimal money in a wonderful hostel almost in the center of St. Petersburg, to have a preferential travel pass and, in general, somehow gain a foothold in the city. In addition, at the Faculty of Sociology itself there were some bright teachers who told interesting stories and could captivate. There are few of them, but they were, and the main thing in the life of a sociology student is to get under the scientific guidance of such people. I was fabulously lucky: I got to Vitaly Grigoriev, who, without fanfare, has been engaged in social science at the faculty as an assistant for more than 10 years and could clearly explain what dispersion is and how factor analysis works.

A few weeks after the publication of the study, we were criticized by the head of the Federal Drug Control Service, and a few months later the department itself was disbanded

While studying there, I worked in a field called automatic text analysis. This is such an interdisciplinary direction between linguistics, programming and data analysis, where they try to teach a computer to solve tasks that a person usually does when working with texts: look for similar texts, determine similarities or differences, and so on. I did not discover anything new there, but I learned the basics application programming and statistical analysis data. Thanks to this, on last year In parallel with my studies, I became an assistant to Mikhail Sokolov, for whom I collected and analyzed data on projects to study the sociological elite (which inspired my first publication) and the sociology of education. I followed Sokolov to various conferences from my first year, and it was a great pleasure to work with him.

After St. Petersburg State University, I entered the European University in St. Petersburg to study political science and sociology. I went there because I knew very well what was going on there (during my last year at St Petersburg University, I went to classes at the European Wild Volunteer and dragged my classmates with me, many of whom acted with me later), and what happened there was a thousand sips fresh air after the social faculty: serious attitude to students, a lot of reading, essays that are read and discussed with you, research articles on English language, charismatic teachers, the atmosphere of a real academy and a cozy building. There, I first studied programmers (more precisely, their salaries using the data from the DOU.ua website), and since my scientific director did not speak Russian, so I had to write my term paper in English. Then I went back to Mikhail Sokolov and studied the career trajectories of sociologists, about whom I wrote my master's thesis. I am still ashamed of my dissertation, but by-product has become a web tool for entering and analyzing biographical trajectories, which we, together with our colleague Arseniy Gabdullin, hope to launch in the public domain in the near future.

In addition to all this, I was lucky to get into the hangout of IT people - an informal educational program by ecosystem information technologies, which was first called "Introduction to the IT Industry", and then renamed to GameChangers. It was made by Sergey Dmitriev, Nikolai Vyakhkhi and Vladimir Aluferov, thanks to whom I got to know huge amount people who were head and shoulders above me in everything, and this always gave an incentive to do something and grow somewhere.

For the last year I have been working at the Institute for Problems of Law Enforcement, where I am engaged in criminal statistics - the analysis of data on crimes. Moreover, I do this in a specific focus, when the data speak not so much about crime itself, but about the bodies that are fighting this crime. My colleagues and I studied the statistics of the fight against drug crimes from the two main departments associated with this - the Ministry of Internal Affairs and the Federal Drug Control Service. We analyzed what drugs and how much are seized during the registration of crimes, and came to the conclusion that the Federal Drug Control Service, despite its mandate to combat wholesale drug dealers, records most crimes with a small amount of a few grams of the drug. This is important because the existence of two large departments that are actually doing the same thing is costly for the country's budget. A few weeks after the publication of the study, we were sharply criticized by the head of the Federal Drug Control Service Viktor Ivanov, and a few months later the Federal Drug Control Service itself was disbanded and attached to the Ministry of Internal Affairs. The study has reached its logical end. In addition, I continue to work on career trajectories, but not sociologists, but law enforcement officers. I am trying to see what patterns exist in the careers of employees using the methods of statistical analysis of biographical trajectories. various organs what are the differences in these careers at the level different regions etc.

Probably, main motive doing social science for me is that if you do it right, then you partially solve people's problems. Sometimes it's more serious problems(for example, studies of poverty, orphanhood or drug addiction), sometimes less, but in any case, the sociologist must study and describe what happens in some public institution. My current work allows, through the study of how law and law are applied in modern Russia, to show what is generally happening in this area not at the level personal stories and rumors, but in general, from a bird's eye view. After working in a field long enough, a sociologist should be prepared to explain what is going on in it and what needs to be done about it in terms of public policy and decision making.

Besides this ethically loaded reason, sociology requires a lot of skills and therefore never gets bored. On the one hand, this is an exact science: hypotheses are put and tested in it, a complex statistical apparatus is used, sometimes you need to program. On the other hand, in sociology it is important to be able to work with theories - to use the conceptual apparatus in order, for example, to see the hidden work of social institutions that influence people's lives behind one advertising banner or heard phrase, and then write an article about it. On the third hand, in sociology there is a lot of so-called field work when you need to get to know a person and interview him, to understand how he lives; in short, to study people directly, using the arsenal of anthropology and ethnography. But that's not all: after you've done your research, you can tell people about it, and people might even become interested. The popularization of the social sciences in Russia is almost not done - in comparison with the state of affairs in the natural and exact sciences, - although there is no less interesting here. This, too, can and should be worked on.

If we talk about crime statistics and empirical legal research, it seems that the coolest in this area are those in which you can combine all crime statistics into one frame, when you have a range of data from crime registration and ending with a court decision, that is many intermediate work states law enforcement system. This allows you to understand very deeply how this system works and draw far-reaching conclusions. In addition, the idea of ​​using data from social media on the Internet is now gaining popularity - when, for example, you are trying to understand whether the likelihood of committing a crime is somehow related to the number and characteristics of Facebook friends.

I am very interested in the possibilities of modern information technologies in the social sciences. First of all, in modern science it is customary to make research reproducible, that is, together with the text scientific article upload to the Internet also the data on which the study was done, and the program code with which you processed them and came to conclusions. This is very important because science is the ability of other people to do the same and get the same results as you. In the social sciences, in contrast to the natural sciences, there are difficulties with the reproducibility and stability of conclusions. I think that if every sociologist clearly describes the data and what he does with it, then the credibility of the social sciences will grow greatly. Therefore, to the best of my ability, I will promote this idea. In addition, programming brings me great pleasure. This is huge world- like the Harry Potter universe that you can immerse yourself in, only for this hobby you get paid and you can do a lot of useful things.

Being a scientist is hard and uncomfortable. For many, this is simply the wrong job, which will harm both themselves and science.

Scientific work, compared with almost any other, is much more difficult. As my teacher, political scientist Vladimir Gelman, used to say, many go into science to solve personal problems. It seems to me that this worst way solving personal problems. If you are a scientist, then you most likely do not have fixed working days and hours, there are no understandable and simple job descriptions, which are in office work. You don't even have high enough and stable wages- you need to do parallel all the time research projects and grants. In this case, specific dangers await you, such as professional burnout and procrastination, which poison life and kill the pleasure of work for a long time. This is when you need to write big text- an article or dissertation - in a few months, and you are sitting at home and simply cannot start working. In the life of a scientist, the line between work and home is either very thin or non-existent. Therefore, such work requires serious abilities to concentrate and manage your time. Add to this the fact that in science it is almost impossible to get accurate and unmistakable knowledge: your theories will always have nuances, data will always have missing values ​​and skews, the results will be inconsistent, and you should always be ready for criticism (sometimes quite offensive, but this is also part of work).

Therefore, being a scientist is hard and uncomfortable, and this work is not suitable for many: people want to earn normal money, clearly understanding that when they come home, the work will not get them, and I understand these people. That is why you need to go to graduate school and even a magistracy only after a person has worked at a regular job for at least a year and still decides that he is bored there and this is not for him. I think that for the scientific craft you need a certain mindset: inquisitiveness, a willingness to delve into the subtleties, even meticulousness. For many people, this is simply the wrong job, which will harm both themselves and science.

It seems to me that the most important thing is the passion for your topic. There is no more ridiculous scientist than one who cannot explain what he is interested in and why. Any study of science should begin with simple questions(although not always with simple answers) about how something works: why a plane flies, why the sky is blue, why some people earn more and others less. From such questions, research begins - first through reading what has been researched before you, and then through collecting and analyzing your own data.

It is difficult to give advice, because all people come to what they do in their own way. It probably makes sense to read books (there are several titles at the end of this text) and communicate with people in general: go to conferences and public lectures, ask questions more often - in general, cultivate and show interest. If you like it, then you the right way; if not, then, apparently, this case is not for you and you need to find something more interesting.

Photos provided by Alexey Knorre.

Sociological thought in Russia is developing as part of the global sociological science. Being influenced by various currents Western sociology, at the same time it puts forward original theories that reflect the uniqueness of the development Russian society. Researchers distinguish three main stages in the development of sociological thought in Russia. The first is from the middle of the 19th century. until 1918 of the XX century, the second - from the beginning of the 20s. until the end of the 50s, the third - from the beginning of the 60s. to the present day. Let's briefly characterize each of them.

The first stage is primarily associated with the work of such major social thinkers as P. L. Lavrov (1829-1900) and N. K. Mikhailovsky (1822 - 1904). The direction of social thought they developed was called subjective sociology. The fundamental ideas of this trend were first formulated in the famous "Historical Letters" by P. L. Lavrov (1870).

Essence community development, according to Lavrov, consists in the processing of culture, namely, in the processing of traditional, prone to stagnation public forms into a civilization characterized by flexible, dynamic structures and relationships. Civilization is interpreted by subjective sociologists as a conscious historical movement. This movement is carried out primarily by critical thought. But since thought is really carried out only through the actions of the individual, insofar, they argue, the main driving force social development are critically thinking individuals, progressive intelligentsia.

Personality in the concept of subjective sociologists is not only the main driving force of society, but also a measure of social progress. The ideal of social development is the creation of such relations in which the prerequisites for the comprehensive development (heterogeneity) of the individual would be created. However, according to subjective sociologists, history has so far gone along the line of development of the heterogeneity of society, its social differentiation and division of labor, which led to the one-sidedness of the individual, to its transformation into a simple appendage of the social mechanism. The full development of the individual, according to subjective sociologists, is possible only within the framework of socialism, where the ideals of freedom, equality and justice will be realized, although they understood socialism in their own way.

H. K. Mikhailovsky defined socialism as the creation of a personal principle through the communal principle. In this regard, in subjective sociology, considerable attention is paid to the development of the question of special way Russia to socialism, in which the peculiarities of the Russian experience should be taken into account. In this regard, subjective sociologists developed the doctrine of the non-capitalist path of development of Russia, which was based on the idea of ​​the transition to socialism through the use and transformation of collectivist traditions of pre-capitalist forms of work and life - the community (“mir”), artels, etc.

Therefore, the study of personality by a sociologist can be carried out only on the principle of empathy, when, according to N.K. Mikhailovsky, the observer puts himself in the position of the observed. In accordance with this attitude, a subjective conception of truth is developed. Truth, according to N.K. Mikhailovsky, is not a reproduction objective properties things in themselves, it exists for man and is the satisfaction of his cognitive faculty. But such an approach led to the denial of regularity and, in fact, justified an arbitrary interpretation public process. To avoid the arbitrariness of opinions, N.K. Mikhailovsky puts forward the idea that it is necessary to take as a criterion of truth cognitive ability normal person, normal not only physiologically, but also placed in favorable conditions for its normal development personal qualities social conditions. In addition, the position of a normal person should reflect the interests of the vast majority of society, that is, the working majority. Therefore, sociology must begin with a certain utopia, i.e., with the construction of a social ideal of a society that ensures full-blooded development human ability. In line with subjective sociology, there was a solution to specific problems of political sociology, the mechanism of communication - the leader and the masses (heroes and the crowd), the role of the party in social struggle.

Outstanding representatives psychological direction sociology, which took shape in Russia in the 1890s, are E. V. De Roberti and N. I. Kareev, who studied critical issues development of society: the original causes and driving forces; the main content and direction of the development of society; progress and regression; the role of the masses and the individual in history, etc. The problems of social development were solved on the basis of the recognition leading role in the behavior of people, their individual and collective psychology.

Public phenomena, scientists believed, always have a psychological basis. According to De Roberti, sociology as experimental science about society should be closely related to psychology, which determines social activities of people. N. I. Kareev believed that sociology proceeds from the general picture of society (worldview), which is created by social philosophy, based on facts, science. N. I. Kareev singled out three main aspects of spiritual life: intellectual (mind); emotional (feelings); strong-willed.

Along with subjective sociology, the works of M. M. Kovalevsky (1851-1916) occupy a prominent place in the social science of that period. leading role in their sociological theory M. M. Kovalevsky assigns the doctrine of social progress, the essence of which he saw in the development of solidarity between social groups, classes, people. One of the main tasks of sociology, M. M. Kovalevsky considered the identification of the essence of solidarity, description and explanation of its diverse forms. M. M. Kovalevsky put forward the idea of ​​evolution, that is, an organic change in the stages of social development. He was mainly interested in the origins and genesis of the main social institutions: family, community, private property and the state.

In parallel with the subjective sociology and positivism of M. M. Kovalevsky, in the fight against them, the sociology of Marxism, represented by two main theories, developed in Russia. Orthodox Marxism at that time was represented by two leading figures - G. V. Plekhanov and V. I. Lenin. The so-called legal Marxism of P. B. Struve, M. I. Tugan-Baranovsky, N. A. Berdyaev and others. The main principles of Marxist methodology were outlined in the previous section, and representatives of orthodox Marxism in Russia generally share them. However, when solving specific problems social structure there were serious differences between G. V. Plekhanov and V. I. Lenin, which, on the eve of October revolution entered the stage of an irreconcilable struggle. The so-called "legal Marxism" as a current of social thought was of a temporary, socio-cultural nature, associated with the enthusiasm of the liberal intelligentsia for Marxist ideas during the period on the eve of the revolution of 1905-1907. After its defeat, the liberal intelligentsia moved away from Marxism, and "legal Marxism" ceased to exist.

Second period development of sociological thought in Russia is characterized by an increase in the process of institutionalization, the acquisition sociological science status social institution. In 1918-1919. departments of sociology were created at the Petrograd and Yaroslavl universities, academic degree in sociology. In 1919 the Sociological Institute was established. In 1920, a sociological department was created at Petrograd University at the Faculty of Social Sciences, headed by Pitirim Aleksandrovich Sorokin (1889-1968), a prominent scientist and public figure who made a significant contribution to the development of domestic and world sociology, as was discussed higher.

Along with the development theoretical questions empirical sociological research unfolded. The central place in them is occupied by research on social and socio-psychological problems of labor and life of workers and peasants. A. K. Gastev, S. G. Strumilin, A. F. Zhuravsky and others worked most fruitfully in this area. social problems cities, population and migration (N. Antsifirov, A Godulov, V. Smulevich and others), social problems of culture (I. Zagorsky, N. Troyanovsky, R. Elizarov).

In the 1930s, Marxism finally established itself as ideological basis society, sociology was declared a philosophical science. It was proclaimed that historical materialism is the sociology of Marxism and, consequently, empirical concrete sociological research, as incompatible with the specifics of philosophical theory, was taken out of sociology. This was the theoretical premise for the defeat of sociology and its complete decline in the USSR.

The revival of sociology as a science begins in the late 1950s - early 1960s, on the wave of “ Khrushchev thaw". During this period, large-scale sociological studies were carried out to study the influence of scientific and technological progress on the social and professional structure of workers, their attitude to work. Social planning, drawing up plans for social and economic development industrial enterprises, collective farms and state farms, and even some cities. In the course of these studies, rich factual material was accumulated, methods of sociological research were worked out, and skills were acquired in conducting sociological research. large quantity self-taught sociologists.

In the 1960s, sociology again restores the status of a social institution. In the middle of 1960, the first sociological institution was created - the department of sociological research at the Institute of Philosophy of the USSR Academy of Sciences and the laboratory of sociological research at Leningrad State University. In 1962, the Soviet Sociological Association was established, and in 1964, the Department of Concrete Sociological Research was established at the Faculty of Philosophy of Moscow State University. In 1969, the Institute of Concrete Sociological Research of the USSR Academy of Sciences was established with branches in union republics and large regional centers: Sverdlovsk, Novosibirsk, Leningrad. Since 1974, the specialized magazine “ sociological research". Since 1988, sociological faculties have been established in Moscow, Leningrad, Sverdlovsk, Kiev universities. Currently, there are a number of academic, university and independent sociological centers conducting extensive empirical and theoretical studies in various fields public life.

Sociologists are becoming more involved in the socio-political life of the country, acting as social assistants, experts, and authors of programs to reform and improve public life. In their work, they are more purposefully reoriented to objective research the real life of the subjects of public life, the trends of its development. The most famous contemporary sociologists in Russia are G. V. Osipov, T. I. Zaslavskaya, A. G. Zdravomyslov, R. V. Ryvkina, A. I. Kravchenko, G. G. Sillaste, V. A. Yadov and others.

Babosov Evgeny Mikhailovich (b. 1931)- Belarusian sociologist and philosopher. Doctor of Philosophy (1972), Professor (1973), Academician of the National Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Belarus (1994). Since 1998 - Honorary Director of the Institute of Sociology of the National Academy of Sciences of Belarus. The main areas of scientific research are social philosophy, theory and history of sociology, conflictology, extreme situations, features of transitional (post-communist) societies. Author of more than 750 scientific papers (including more than 30 individual monographs, textbooks and teaching aids). Including "Personality, Collective, Society" (1975), "Sociology of Conflicts" (1996), "Man on the Threshold of the Market" (1992), "Introduction to Conflictology" (1996), "Sociology of Management" (2000), " General sociology. Textbook” (2002) and others. Babosov played a significant role in the creation and institutionalization of academic sociology in the Republic of Belarus.

Bloomer Herbert (1900–1987) American sociologist and psychologist In 1925–1952 he worked at the University of Chicago, from 1952 at the University of California. Representative of the Chicago School, student of J. G. Mead. In 1937 he proposed the term "symbolic interactionism". The main work is “Symbolic interactionism. Perspectives and Method" (1969). According to the scientist, actions with symbols (gestures, language) precede practical-transformative actions. Through sign activity, we set distances, i.e., we structure the external world.

Bourdieu Pierre (1930–2002 ) – French sociologist, professor at the Higher School of Social Sciences. Since 1996 - Director of the School of Practical Research. Since 1975 he has headed the Center for European Sociology. Author of 35 books and several hundred articles. Bourdieu studied social reproduction, the education system, the state, power and politics, literature, mass media, social sciences. Bourdieu's main work is Difference. Social Criticism of Judgment (1979). Since the publication of The Poverty of the World in 1993, Bourdieu has taken a critical stance on the side of disadvantaged, endangered or excluded groups.

Weber Max (1864–1920) – leading sociologist late 19th-early 20th century. Studied at Heidelberg University. From 1894 he was a professor at the University of Freiburg, from 1896 at Heidelberg. He lectured at the Universities of Saint Louis (USA) and Vienna (Austria). Since 1919 - professor at the University of Munich. World famous works: "The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism" (1905), "Politics as a Profession" (1919), "Science as a Profession" (1920), "Economy and Society" (1921). He developed the theory of "ideal types", which he considered as concentrated reflections of the essence of the studied social phenomena, their ideal models. He paid much attention to the study of social action and its main types, structures and functions. Developed the doctrine of the types of domination and subordination, the essence of power and political systems. He thoroughly researched the sociology of religion and revealed the decisive role of Protestantism, in particular Protestant ethics in the formation and development of capitalism.

Giddens Anthony (b. 1938) is an English sociologist and political scientist. Since 1961 he has been a lecturer in sociology at the University of Leicester, since 1965 he has been a professor of sociology at Cambridge. Main works: "Main Problems of Social Theory" (1979), "Organization of Society" (1984). Author of the theory of structuration, according to which social structures are products of human actions and relationships. All human actions are in turn influenced by the structural characteristics of society. The process of social reproduction through the actions of structural mechanisms develops into social transformations. Transformational changes themselves take place partly in accordance with the intentions of the people who make them, and sometimes lead to such consequences that no one wanted or foresaw.

Danilov Alexander Nikolaevich (b. 1965)- Belarusian sociologist, political scientist and social philosopher. Doctor of Sociological Sciences (1994). Head of the sector for studying public opinion and forecasting of the Council of Ministers of the Republic of Belarus (1991–1994), a similar sector of the Administration of the President of the Republic of Belarus (1994–2000), professor at the Department of Sociology of Belarusian State University (since 2000), deputy chairman of the Higher Attestation Commission of the Republic of Belarus (since 2003). Founder and Chief Editor scientific-theoretical journal "Sociology". A.N. Danilov is the author of an original theoretical and methodological concept that reveals the mechanism of systemic transformational changes in post-Soviet countries. He developed the theoretical prerequisites for a new direction in sociological science - the sociology of transformational processes in transitional societies.

Dahrendorf Ralph (1929–2009) - German sociologist, political scientist, politician. In 1958–1967 he was a professor at the universities of Hamburg, Tübingen, Konstanz. From 1974-1984 he was director of the London School of Economics and Political Science. Main works: "Social classes and class conflict in industrial society" (1957), "Society and freedom" (1961), "Modern social conflict" (1982). Dahrendorf is the author of the so-called " conflict model society." Dahrendorf's conflict theory emerged as an alternative to Marxism. For Dahrendorf, order and stability are the essence of the pathology of social life. Different theories organize and constitute the world in their own specific ways, and one of these ways - quite promising, according to Dahrendorf - is the theory of conflict.

Emil Durkheim (1858–1917) - French sociologist He worked as a professor of sociology at the University of Bordeaux (1887–1902), and then at the Sorbonne. The main works are "On the division of social labor" (1893), "Rules of the sociological method" (1895), "Suicide" (1897). He believed that sociology should be based on the study of social facts of an objective nature, considered society as a completely unique social reality, which should be studied by an independent science, irreducible to philosophy - sociology. Much attention was paid to the analysis of the division of labor, which plays huge role in the development of society. Identified the main types of social solidarity and differentiation of society. He introduced the concept of "anomie", by which he understood the pathology of social life, embodied in deliberate violations of the norms of law, morality, etc.

Comte Auguste (1798–1857) – French philosopher, sociologist, methodologist, lecturer at the Paris Polytechnic, founder of the school of positivism. Author of the six-volume A Course in Positive Philosophy (1830–1842). In 1816-1824 he was Saint-Simon's secretary. Comte proclaimed the creation new science- sociology, designed to study the unified, universal laws on the development of society; created an evolutionary theory of social development, an original concept of social statics, social dynamics, a system of laws and principles of sociology.

Kravchenko Albert Ivanovich (b. 1949)- Russian sociologist, specialist in the field of economic sociology and sociology of labor. Graduated from the Faculty of Philosophy of Moscow State University (1973). Doctor of Sociological Sciences (1991). Since 1978 he has been working at the Institute of Sociology of the Russian Academy of Sciences as a leading researcher. Since 1984 - scientific consultant, editor of the journal Sociological Research. Kravchenko defined the structure and subject area of ​​the sociology of labor, systematized the categorical apparatus, singled out the main schools in the history of domestic and foreign sociology of labor, and proposed a new interpretation of Taylor's concept of social organization of labor. He is the author of more than 150 scientific papers, including “The sociology of labor in the 20th century: a historical and critical essay” (1987), “Introduction to sociology. Textbook" (1995), "Fundamentals of Sociology" (1997).

Cooley Charles Horton (1864–1929) American sociologist and social psychologist. He was educated and taught at the University of Michigan. In 1918 - President of the American Social Society. Major works: Human Nature and the Social Order (1902), Social Organization (1909), Social Process (1918), Sociological Theory and social research» (1930). It is considered the forerunner of the theory of "symbolic interactionism". According to Cooley, man and society are aspects of an organic unity - " human life outside of which they are pure abstractions. Society can exist only on the basis of the interaction of individuals, their communication. Cooley associated the formation of the human "I" with the summation of the impressions that, according to the scientist, he makes on others (the theory of the "mirror "I").

Lavrov Petr Lavrovich (1823–1900) - Russian sociologist, publicist, ideologue of populism in the 1860s; Early in his career, he was a professor of mathematics. In 1868–1869 he published Historical Letters, which became a reference book for the radical youth of Russia. From 1870 abroad, he publishes the newspaper Vperyod! Lavrov is considered the founder of sociology on Russian soil, the first Russian sociologist. Considering sociology as the completion of a system of sciences (anthropology) and distinguishing it from historical science (focused on social dynamics), Lavrov defines it as the science of solidarity, its forms and evolution. Solidarity is a commonality of habits, interests or beliefs, the coincidence of personal interest with the public interest. Lavrov comes to the conclusion that there is a special subjective method in sociology, which is expressed in the inevitable assessment of any social phenomenon under study from the point of view of a certain moral ideal. The real subjects of history, according to Lavrov, are "critically thinking individuals" capable of developing in themselves the highest moral ideal.

Luman Nickles (1927–1999) is a well-known German sociologist. Graduated from Bielefeld University. In 1968–1993 - Professor at Bielefeld University. He paid the main attention to the development of the theory of social systems. He believed that the main elements of the social system are not people or their actions, but their communications with each other. Communication is not limited to the transfer of information, but is a self-referential process leading to a certain structuring of the social system. The most famous works are social systems: Fundamentals of a General Theory" (1984), "Theory of Society" (1989), "Observations of the Present" (1992).

Marx Karl (1818–1883) - outstanding German philosopher, sociologist, economist. He was educated at the Universities of Bonn and Berlin, and defended his doctoral dissertation in philosophy at the University of Jena. In 1864 he participated in the establishment of the International Association of Workers (I International). Major works: "Capital" (1867-1894), "On the Critique of Political Economy. Preface" (1859), "18 Brumer Louis Bonaparte" (1852). Marx believed that the basis of the development of society is the method of production of material goods, consisting of two interrelated aspects - productive forces and production relations. At a certain stage in the development of society, the productive forces come into conflict with production relations, and then the era of social revolution begins. In the process of revolutions, the working class becomes the "gravedigger" of capitalism, turns private property into public property; a transition is being made to a new type of society - communist, in which the free development of each becomes a condition for the free development of all.

Merton Robert King (1910–2003) – American sociologist, professor emeritus at Columbia University, president of the American Sociological Association (1957). He made a significant contribution to the development and formation of a number of main areas of academic sociology: the theory and methodology of structural functionalism (“Social theory and structure”, 1957), social disorganization of societies (“Social structure and anomie”, 1966), sociology of science (“Sociology of Science” , 1973), etc.

Meade George Herbert (1863–1931) – American psychologist, sociologist and philosopher. His main works are collected in the books Mind. Self and Society (1934) and Philosophy of Action (1938). He defined his concept as "social behaviorism", however, he actually laid down the theoretical and methodological foundations the theory of symbolic interactionism (the term was introduced by his student G. Bloomer). According to Mead, any interaction presupposes the possession of a language (as a symbolic system), which allows one to see oneself in the world through symbols and create new symbols.

Mikhailovsky Nikolai Konstantinovich (1842–1904) - Russian philosopher and sociologist, populist theorist, founder (along with Lavrov) of subjective sociology. Major works: "An analogous method in social science(1869), "What is Progress?" (1872), "The Struggle for Individuality" (1875–1876), "Heroes and the Crowd" (1882). Since 1892 - one of the leading editors of the magazine "Russian wealth". The subject of sociology, according to Mikhailovsky, is the relationship of various forms of community life (cooperation) to the fate of the individual, the study of the laws of this relationship makes it possible to combine the real and the proper in sociological analysis. Mikhailovsky developed the subjective method in sociology. This method does not exclude objective cognition, but due to the inevitability of the subjective moment (prejudiced opinion) from social cognition, it also implies an assessment of reality from the point of view of a moral ideal, a desired future.

Parsons Talcott (1902–1979) is an eminent American sociologist. Born in Colorado Springs, Colorado. Since 1927 - professor at Harvard University, in 1946-1956. headed the department social relations. Creator of sociological theories of structural-functional analysis and social action. President of the American Sociological Association (1949). He focused on the theory of systems and social action, developed in the works The Structure of Social Activity (1937), Toward a General Theory of Action (1951), and The System of Modern Societies (1971). He was engaged in the study of the subject of action ("actor"), which can be a separate individual, team, organization. He considered the main functions of action systems: adaptation, integration, motivation and goal achievement. He believed that the system of society includes, as the highest hierarchical structure, the system of culture, inextricably linked with the system of personality.

Smelser Neil Jordan (b. 1930)- American sociologist, professor at the University of California, representative of evolutionary functionalism, student and follower of T. Parsons. Main works: "Sociology of Economic Life" (Russian translation published in 1965), "Theory of Collective Behavior" (1962), textbook "Sociology" (1988). Author of the concept of value-oriented collective behavior, the theory of social change and the methodology of comparative analysis.

Sorokin Pitirim Alexandrovich (1889–1968) - was born in the Vologda province in the family of a craftsman. Graduated from St. Petersburg University. In 1917 he received the title of Privatdozent of St. Petersburg University, in 1920 he was elected head of the sociology department of this university. In 1922 he emigrated from Soviet Russia. First he lived and worked in Prague, and then in the USA. He worked as a professor, and from 1930 - dean of the sociological department at Harvard University. Major works: The System of Sociology (1920), Social Mobility (1927), Social and Cultural Dynamics (1937–1941), Social and Cultural Mobility (1959), Sociological Theories Today (1966). The main contribution to sociological science lies in the creation of theories of social stratification and social mobility, in the development of a worldwide panorama of the sociocultural dynamics of society and the main types of cultures. I thought that key role in the development of man and society they perform social interactions, in the process of deployment of which the personality is formed, forms of culture and types of societies are developed. He sharply criticized the excessive distribution of various forms mass culture, inextricably linked with the crisis of spirituality in the modern world. He expressed confidence that humanity is moving from the era of wars, revolutions and the crisis of culture to new forms of social interactions that elevate a person spiritually, morally, socially.

Spencer Herbert (1820–1903) British philosopher and sociologist The most important works: "Basic Principles" (1862), "Foundations of Biology" (1864-1867), "Foundations of Psychology" (1870-1872), three-volume work "Foundations of Sociology" (1876-1896). The idea of ​​universal evolution is the central point of Spencer's worldview. All his efforts were aimed at substantiating this idea. He identified three types of evolutionary processes: inorganic, organic and supraorganic. The main task of sociology according to Spencer is the study of mass typical phenomena, social facts that reveal the operation of the universal laws of evolution. Spencer is the founder of the "organicist school" in sociology.

Yadov Vladimir Alexandrovich (b. 1929)- Russian sociologist. In the late 1950s, Yadov organized a sociological research laboratory at the Leningrad State University, which for the first time in the USSR began to study work motivation. In 1963–1964 he completed an internship at the University of Manchester and London School economics and political sciences, where he studied the methods and techniques of sociological research. Under the leadership of Yadov, a team of highly qualified specialists was formed in Leningrad, which carried out the research project "Man and his work." During the 1960s and 1970s, the Leningrad sociological school headed by Yadov conducted a fundamental study of value orientations, as a result of which a dispositional theory of the regulation of the social behavior of an individual was developed and widely recognized, which played an important role in separating social theory from the doctrine of historical materialism.

1 V modern sociology class is understood large group people who have the same status in the system of social stratification.