Them in Russian. Isolation of the Balto-Slavic branch

The Russian language is a kind of mirror that reflects the spirit inherent in all the people. His sound means of expression, artistic possibilities are an integral part of culture and at the same time its extremely concentrated essence. The qualities of the Russian language were very colorfully described by Mikhail Vasilievich Lomonosov: he has the tenderness of Italian and the splendor of Spanish, the liveliness of French and the strength of German, the richness and expressive brevity of Greek and Latin. All these properties did not appear suddenly. The history of the Russian language is rooted in the depths of time.

parent language

To date, there are several theories of the development of the Proto-Slavic language. All researchers agree that he stood out from the Proto-Indo-European. Some scientists note that for a long time there was a Proto-Balto-Slavic language, which then broke up into Proto-Slavic and Proto-Baltic. In favor of this speaks a large number of found similarities. However, other researchers write about the parallel development of two or more languages. late period their convergence.

Be that as it may, the separation of the distant “ancestor” of the Russian from the Proto-Indo-European dates back to the III millennium BC. Written sources that time does not exist. However, careful and collected data allow scientists to reconstruct the development of the language in such distant times.

As a result of the movement and settlement of tribes, their relative isolation, the Proto-Slavic language in the 6th-7th centuries. n. e. split into three branches: southern, western and eastern.

Old Russian

The eastern branch was named " Old Russian language". It existed until about the 13th-14th century. Old Russian was spoken by the Eastern Slavs.

In fact, it was the sum of several dialects, interpenetrating and constantly interacting with each other. Their proximity was largely facilitated by the XI-XII centuries. The language has several dialects:

  • southwestern - in Kyiv, Galicia and Volhynia;
  • western - in Smolensk and Polotsk;
  • southeastern - Ryazan, Kursk, Chernigov;
  • northwestern - Novgorod, Pskov;
  • northeast - Rostov and Suzdal.

The dialects differed by a whole set of characteristics, some of which have been preserved in these areas today. In addition, there were discrepancies in written language used for legal documents. According to scientists, it was based on the ancient Kievan dialect.

Cyril and Methodius

The written period in the history of the Old Russian language begins in the 11th century. It is associated with the names of Cyril and Methodius. In the 9th century they created the Church Slavonic alphabet. The letters of the Russian language, familiar to us from childhood, “grew” precisely from it. Cyril and Methodius translated into Church Slavonic Holy Bible. This version of the language is still the main one for Orthodox services today. For a long time it was used as a written, literary and never - as a colloquial.

Church Slavonic is based on the South Bulgarian Slavic dialect. It was native to Cyril and Methodius and influenced the vocabulary and spelling of the Old Russian language.

three branches

Old Russian was more or less unified until the 11th century. Then the state began to turn into a combination of relatively independent friend from other principalities. As a result of this division, dialects of different folk groups began to separate and eventually turned into completely independent languages. Their final formation dates back to the XIII-XIV centuries. The Russian language is one of the three branches. The other two are Ukrainian and Belarusian. Together they are part of the group.

Old Russian period of the history of the language

The modern literary Russian language is the result of combining the features of two dialects: the northwestern (Pskov and Novgorod) and the central eastern (Rostov, Suzdal, Ryazan and Moscow). Its development preceded the appearance of some new features in the XIV-XVII centuries. Let's dwell on them in a little more detail.

At this time, the language of the Moscow principality borrowed several syntactic and lexical features. However, in more he was exposed to Church Slavonic. His influence was reflected in the vocabulary, syntax, spelling and morphology of the Russian language. At the same time, the formation of own, non-borrowed new features was also observed:

  • loss during declination of alternations c / c, g / s, x / s;
  • vocabulary change;
  • the disappearance of the IV declension, and so on.

The period from XIV to XVII in the history of the language is called Old Russian.

Modern literary Russian

The language familiar to us was actually formed in the 17th-19th centuries. The activities of Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov played a significant role in this process. He created the rules of versification in Russian, was the author of scientific grammar.

However, Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin is considered to be the direct creator of the modern Russian literary language. Of course, if you look into any book recent years and compare it, for example, with the text " captain's daughter', there are a lot of differences. And yet it is precisely great poet and the writer managed to combine the features of the literary language of previous eras with conversational features, and this became the basis for further development.

Borrowings

Of great importance in the history of any language is the influence of dialects spoken by the population of neighboring or simply friendly states. Over the course of many centuries, Russian was replenished with words that were foreign in origin. Today they are called borrowings. They are easy to hear in almost any conversation:

  • English: football, sports, hockey;
  • German: hairdresser, sandwich, gateway;
  • French: veil, scarf, jacket, floor lamp;
  • Spanish: cocoa, bullfighting, castanets;
  • Latin: vacuum, delegate, republic.

Along with borrowings, they also distinguish primordially. They arose in all periods of history, some of them passed from ancient form language. Original Russian words can be divided into several groups:

  • common Slavic (formed before the 5th-6th centuries): mother, night, day, birch, drink, eat, brother;
  • East Slavic (formed before the XIV-XV centuries, common to Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian): uncle, walk, forty, family;
  • proper Russian (since the 14th century): nouns denoting persons with the suffixes -schik and -chik (machine gunner), abstract nouns formed from adjectives with the suffix -ost (touchiness), compound abbreviated words (university, BAM, UN).

The role of language

Today, several countries use Russian as their official language. These are Russia, Kazakhstan, the Republic of Belarus and Kyrgyzstan. Russian is the national language of our people and the basis of international communication in Central Eurasia, Eastern Europe, countries former USSR, as well as one of the working languages ​​used by the UN.

The power of the Russian language is fully reflected in classical literature. Imagery, richness of vocabulary, features of sound, word formation and syntax made it worthy to play an important role in the interaction different peoples the whole world. All this is revealed to schoolchildren when they study the subject "Russian language". Grammar and punctuation wilds become more interesting when there is a long story behind them, great power and the strength of the people and language.

Russian language is one of the group east Slavic languages, along with Ukrainian and Belarusian. It is the most widely spoken Slavic language and one of the most widely spoken languages ​​in the world in terms of the number of people who speak it and consider it their mother tongue.

In turn, the Slavic languages ​​belong to Balto-Slavic branch families Indo-European languages. Thus, in order to answer the question: where did the Russian language come from, you need to make an excursion into deep antiquity.

Origin of the Indo-European languages

About 6 thousand years ago there lived a people who are considered to be the carriers of the Proto-Indo-European language. Where he lived exactly is today the subject of fierce debate among historians and linguists. The steppes are called the ancestral home of the Indo-Europeans. of Eastern Europe and Western Asia, and the territory on the border between Europe and Asia, and the Armenian Highlands. In the early 80s of the last century, linguists Gamkrelidze and Ivanov formulated the idea of ​​two ancestral homes: first there was the Armenian Highlands, and then the Indo-Europeans moved to the Black Sea steppes. Archaeologically, the speakers of the Proto-Indo-European language are correlated with representatives of the “pit culture”, who lived in the east of Ukraine and on the territory of modern Russia in the 3rd millennium BC.

Isolation of the Balto-Slavic branch

Subsequently, the Proto-Indo-Europeans settled in Asia and Europe, mixed with local peoples and gave them their language. In Europe, the languages ​​of the Indo-European family are spoken by almost all peoples, except for the Basques, in Asia various languages this family is spoken in India, Iran. Tajikistan, Pamir, etc. About 2 thousand years ago, the Proto-Balto-Slavic language emerged from the common Proto-Indo-European language. According to a number of linguists (including Ler-Splavinsky), the Proto-Baltoslavs existed as a single people speaking the same language for about 500-600 years, and the archaeological culture of Corded Ware corresponds to this period in the history of our peoples. Then language branch divided again: into the Baltic group, which henceforth healed independent life, and Proto-Slavic, which became common root from which all modern Slavic languages ​​originated.

Old Russian language

All-Slavic unity persisted until the 6th-7th century AD. When carriers of East Slavic dialects stood out from the common Slavic array, the Old Russian language began to form, which became the ancestor of modern Russian, Belarusian and Ukrainian. The Old Russian language is known to us thanks to numerous monuments written in Church Slavonic, which can be considered as written, literary form Old Russian language. In addition, preserved written monuments – birch bark letters, graffiti on the walls of churches - written in everyday, colloquial Old Russian.

Old Russian period

The Old Russian (or Great Russian) period covers the time from the 14th to the 17th centuries. At this time, the Russian language finally stands out from the group of East Slavic languages, phonetic and grammatical systems close to modern ones are formed in it, other changes take place, including dialects. The leading among them is the “aking” dialect of the upper and middle Oka, and, first of all, the Moscow dialect.

Modern Russian

The Russian language we speak today began to take shape with XVII century. It is based on the Moscow dialect. The literary works of Lomonosov, Trediakovsky, Sumarokov played a decisive role in the formation of the modern Russian language. Lomonosov also wrote the first grammar, fixing the norms of the literary Russian language. All the richness of the Russian language, which has developed from the synthesis of Russian colloquial, Church Slavonic elements, borrowings from other languages, is reflected in the works of Pushkin, who is considered the creator of the modern Russian literary language.

Borrowings from other languages

Over the centuries of its existence, the Russian language, like any other living and developing system, was repeatedly enriched by borrowings from other languages. The earliest borrowings include "Baltisms" - borrowings from the Baltic languages. However, in this case, we are probably not talking about borrowings, but about vocabulary that has been preserved from the time when the Slavic-Baltic community existed. The “Balticisms” include such words as “ladle”, “tow”, “stack”, “amber”, “village”, etc. During the period of Christianization, "Grecisms" - "sugar", "bench" entered our language. "lantern", "notebook", etc. Through contacts with European nations"Latinisms" - "doctor", "medicine", "rose" and "Arabisms" - "admiral", "coffee", "lacquer", "mattress", etc. entered the Russian language. large group words entered our language from Turkic languages. These are words such as “hearth”, “tent”, “hero”, “cart”, etc. And, finally, since the time of Peter I, the Russian language has absorbed words from European languages. At first, this is a large layer of words from German, English and Dutch related to science, technology, maritime and military affairs: "ammunition", "globe", "assembly", "optics", "pilot", "sailor", "deserter". Later, French, Italian and spanish words related to household items, areas of art - “stained glass”, “veil”, “couch”, “boudoir”, “ballet”, “actor”, “billboard”, “pasta”, “serenade”, etc. And finally, these days we are experiencing a new influx of borrowings, this time from English, in the main language.

RUSSIAN LANGUAGE
language of the Russian people international communication peoples of Russia. Refers to eastern group Slavic languages.
The origins of the Russian language go back to ancient times. Approximately in the 2nd-1st millennium BC. from the group of related dialects of the Indo-European family of languages, the Proto-Slavic language stands out (in late stage- approximately in the I-VII centuries. - called Proto-Slavic). Where the Proto-Slavs and their descendants, the Proto-Slavs, lived is a debatable issue. Probably the Proto-Slavic tribes in the 2nd half. 1st century BC. and at the beginning of our era. occupied lands from the middle reaches of the Dnieper in the east to the upper reaches of the Vistula in the west, south of the Pripyat in the north and forest-steppe regions in the south. In the 1st floor. 1st century Proto-Slavic territory expanded dramatically. In the VI-VII centuries. Slavs occupied lands from the Adriatic in the southwest to the headwaters of the Dnieper and Lake Ilmen in the northeast. Proto-Slavic ethno-linguistic unity broke up. Three closely related groups formed: the eastern ( Old Russian people), western (on the basis of which the Poles, Czechs, Slovaks, Lusatians, Pomeranian Slavs were formed) and southern (its representatives are Bulgarians, Serbo-Croats, Slovenes, Macedonians).
The East Slavic (Old Russian) language existed from the 7th to the 14th centuries. His characteristics: full accord ("crow", "malt", "birch", "iron"); pronunciation "zh", "h" in place of praslav. dj, tj, kt (“I walk”, “candle”, “night”); change of nasal vowels o, e into "u", "i"; ending "-t" in 3rd person verbs plural present and future time; ending "-e" in names with a soft stem to "-a" in genitive case singular("earth"); many words not attested in the ancient Slavic languages ​​(“bush”, “rainbow”, “breast”, “cat”, “cheap”, “boot”, etc.), and a number of other Russian features. In the X century. on its basis, writing arises (Cyrillic alphabet, Cyrillic). Already in Kievan Rus(IX - n. XII centuries) the Old Russian language became a means of communication for some Baltic, Finno-Ugric, Turkic, and partly Iranian tribes and nationalities. In the XIV-XVI centuries. southwestern variety of literary language Eastern Slavs was the language of the state and Orthodox Church in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and in the Principality of Moldavia.
In the XIII-XIV centuries. part of the Russian people fell under the occupation of the Tatar-Mongolian and Polish-Lithuanian conquerors. As a result, the unity of the Old Russian language is destroyed. New ethno-linguistic centers are emerging. The peculiarity of the existence of some parts of the Russian people leads to the emergence of three main dialects of the Russian language, each having its own special story: northern (Northern Great Russian), middle (later Belarusian and South Great Russian) and southern (Little Russian).
In the era of Moscow Russia (XIV-XVII centuries), dialectal features continued to develop. Two main dialect zones took shape - Northern Great Russian (approximately north of the line Pskov - Tver - Moscow, south Nizhny Novgorod) and South Great Russian (in the south of this line to the Belarusian and Ukrainian regions) dialects, overlapping with other dialect divisions. Intermediate Middle Russian dialects arose, among which the dialect of Moscow began to play a leading role. Initially, it was mixed, then it developed into a harmonious system. For him became characteristic: akanye; pronounced reduction of vowels of unstressed syllables; explosive consonant "g"; the ending "-ovo", "-evo" in the genitive singular masculine and neuter in the pronominal declension; hard ending "-t" in the verbs of the 3rd person of the present and future tense; forms of pronouns "me", "you", "myself" and a number of other phenomena. The Moscow dialect is gradually becoming exemplary and forms the basis of the Russian national literary language. At this time, in live speech, the final restructuring of the categories of time takes place (the ancient past tenses - aorist, imperfect, perfect and pluperfect are completely replaced unified form to "-l"), the loss of the dual number, the former declension of nouns in six bases is replaced modern types declination.
In the XVIII - 1st half. 19th century a common Russian literary language is being created. played a big role here language theory and practice of M.V. Lomonosov, the author of the first detailed grammar of the Russian language, who proposed to distribute various speech means depending on destination literary works into high, medium and low styles.
M.V. Lomonosov, V.K. Trediakovsky, D.I. Fonvizin, G.R. Derzhavin, N.M. Karamzin and other Russian writers paved the way for great reform A.S. Pushkin. The creative genius of Pushkin synthesized in single system various speech elements: Russian folk, Church Slavonic and Western European, and Russian became the cementing basis vernacular, especially its Moscow variety. Modern Russian begins with Pushkin literary language, are rich and varied language styles(artistic journalistic, scientific, etc.), closely related to each other, are defined all-Russian, obligatory for all who know the literary language, phonetic, grammatical and lexical norms, develops and generalizes lexical system. In the development and formation of the Russian literary language big role played by Russian writers of the 19th-20th centuries. (A.S. Griboyedov, V.A. Zhukovsky, I.A. Krylov, M.Yu. Lermontov, N.V. Gogol, I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, A .P. Chekhov and others).
K n. 20th century on vocabulary, the variety of meanings and possibilities for conveying the most subtle shades of human experiences, describing nature and public relations The Russian language was one of the richest literary languages, which, naturally, led to the complete displacement of obsolete dialects and dialects from the cultural sphere. All cultured people of Russia, wherever they lived - in Siberia or Belarus, in the Urals or in Little Russia - used the Russian literary language.
As in the VII-XIV centuries. Old Russian was one of the critical factors national unity, so in the XIX - n. 20th century this factor was the all-Russian literary language of Pushkin, Gogol, Dostoevsky and Tolstoy. The Russian literary language united all branches and parts of the Russian people, creating favorable conditions for the development of an all-Russian culture and mutual understanding between Russians and other peoples of Russia. Destruction Russian Empire, the division of the Russian people leads to the forcible displacement of the common Russian language from the territory of Little Russia and Belarus and a number of national regions. Long-outdated, archaic dialects are being exhumed, artificial languages ​​are being planted.

Source: Encyclopedia "Russian Civilization"


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The Russian language in skillful hands and in experienced lips is beautiful, melodious, expressive, flexible, obedient, dexterous and roomy.
(c) A.I. Kuprin

What distinguishes cultured person? That's right, his speech. It can be used to judge the education, outlook and even the mood of the interlocutor.

Unfortunately, the literacy rate of the population in our country is falling every year. Fortunately, the number of people striving for it is increasing.

Speaking and writing Russian correctly is difficult. Even professionals who work with texts on a daily basis make mistakes from time to time.

Linguistic knowledge and skills need to be constantly updated and improved. That is why we have collected for you the top 5 portals dedicated to the Russian language.

GRAMOTA.RU

- perhaps the most famous reference and information portal about the Russian language.

Sowing "the Russian language for everyone", the developers have collected all kinds of dictionaries on it: from spelling to anthroponymic ones.

Audio dictionaries deserve special attention among them. For example, the dictionary "We speak correctly" - Chief Editor The portal, together with the host of one of the Moscow radio stations, teaches how to “hit” words correctly, and also tells in a fascinating way about their origin.

On GRAMOTA.RU you will find rich theoretical material in Russian, and more importantly - practical tasks(exercises and dictations). So everyone can check the level of the language and “paint over” the gaps in their knowledge.

In addition, if you are in doubt about the spelling of a particular word, you can ask the appropriate question and get a qualified answer from the staff of GRAMOTA.

The culture of writing

- an unofficial portal created by a group of enthusiasts from St. Petersburg teachers of Russian language and literature. They advise, edit texts, but most importantly they accumulate educational and reference material In Russian.

It is about both journalistic and scientific articles, and dictionaries, spelling, punctuation, spelling and other rules.

Of particular interest is the section containing typical mistakes committed by us in Russian oral and writing.

The site also has a lot of regulatory and methodological material. Therefore, it will be useful to teachers of the Russian language, as well as their students preparing to take exams.

Web edition of the rules of the Russian language

is a reference site created by a designer and blogger (together with Roman Parpalak and Shurik Babaev).

Here you will not find any dictionaries, tests and forms "question - answer". Only spelling and punctuation rules Russian language. But! They are well structured according to the morphemic principle, concise and provided with examples.

At the same time, the main feature of the portal is search. Fast and convenient. You can drive into search string the suffix you are interested in or the whole word with it; you can write "commas in compound sentences" or just put a "," sign.

This site is indispensable for journalists, copywriters, bloggers and everyone who needs efficiency in editing texts.

Textology

- a site about the Russian language and literature. The target audience is quite wide: from philologists and linguists to high school students.

The site also presents all the main language rules, dictionaries; there is a forum and help desk to help deal with complex cases.

From the point of view of the Russian language, there is nothing new on the portal, but the Literature section is very interesting and informative. You will find there a variety of materials on the theory of literature (genera, genres, text, and much more) - an excellent help for novice writers and publicists.

Best-language

- a site-collection of rules for the Russian language. As in the case of therules.ru, it contains all the basic rules (plus sections on phonetics, vocabulary and morphology), but they are even more concise.

It is stated that the site will help you improve your literacy and pass exams successfully. This should be facilitated by tests, the link to which is provided after some rules. But alas, the links are not working.

In conclusion, a small survey: what services and portals about the Russian language do you use? Share links in the comments.

1. Russian language as the national language of the Russian people, the state language of the Russian Federation and the language of interethnic communication.

The Russian language is the language of the Russian nation, the language in which its culture was created and is being created.

Russian is the official language of the Russian Federation. It serves all areas of activity of people living in Russia: they write on it key documents countries and teaching in educational institutions.

Since our country is multinational, the Russian language serves as a means of interethnic communication between people: it is understandable to every citizen of Russia. Russian is the native language for most of the population of our country.

2. Russian language as a primary element of great Russian literature.

The Russian language is the language in which the Russian nation has created and is creating its culture, primarily literature. AT modern form the Russian language first appeared in the 19th century, in the era of A.S. Pushkin. It is he who is considered the founder of the modern Russian language, which is understandable to all of us and which we speak.

The Russian language includes literary variety(i.e. one in which all the rules fixed in grammars are observed), and non-literary (i.e. dialects, vernacular, jargons and slang - cases of deviation from the generally accepted norm).

Russian writers and poets have always successfully used both varieties of the Russian language, creating great works of Russian literature.

3. Russian language in modern society. Wealth, beauty and expressiveness of the Russian language.

In modern society in Russia, the Russian language plays an official role, being the national, official language and the language of interethnic communication. Not less than important role Russian language and in the world: it is an international language (one of the six official and working languages ​​of the UN).

In modern society, the Russian language is given great attention. Society's concern for the language is expressed in its codification, i.e. in streamlining linguistic phenomena into a single set of rules.

4. The place of the Russian language among other languages. Russian as one of the Indo-European languages.

Russian language belongs to Indo-European family languages, that is, it has one common parent language with other languages ​​\u200b\u200bof this group (basically, this European languages). Due to the common origin in these languages, there is much in common in grammatical structure, there is a layer identical words, which differ from each other phonetically (these are words denoting family members, verbs denoting simple actions, etc.).

Russian language among other Slavic languages.

Russian language is included in Slavic group languages, which is divided into eastern, western and southern subgroups. Russian, belonging to the eastern subgroup, which also includes Ukrainian and Belarusian languages, is closely related to these languages.

Russian language and language contacts.

Throughout its history, the Russian language did not exist autonomously, but came into contact with other languages ​​that left their imprints in it.

In the 7th-12th centuries, the Russian language borrowed words from the Scandinavian languages, these were words associated with sea fishing (anchor, hook) and proper names (Olga, Igor).

Due to tight economic and cultural ties(adoption of Christianity) into Russian big influence^ speech language (cucumber, lantern, altar, demon).

In the 18th century, the Russian language was actively influenced by French, which was considered the language of the aristocracy (buffet, lampshade, arena).

In the last fifteen to twenty years, words from of English language. Sometimes the use of words English origin redundant: foreign words, which sometimes are not even clear to everyone, replace more familiar words. This spoils speech, violates its qualities such as purity and correctness.

But not only other languages ​​influence the Russian language, but vice versa. Thus, in the middle of the 20th century, after the launch of the first satellites and spaceships in all languages ​​of the world such words as "cosmonaut" or "satellite" appeared.

Role Old Church Slavonic in the development of the Russian language.

Old Church Slavonic was first used Western Slavs, and in the X century it became the language of the Eastern Slavs. It was into this language that Christian texts were translated from Greek. This language was at first a swamp of a book, but it is also a log colloquial began to influence each other, in Russian chronicles often these related languages mixed up.

The influence of Old Church Slavonic made our language more expressive and flexible. So, for example, words denoting abstract concepts began to be used (they did not yet have their own names).

Many words that came from the Old Slavonic language are not perceived by us as borrowed: they are completely Russified (clothing, extraordinary); others are perceived by us as obsolete or poetic (finger, boat, fisherman).

5. The science of the Russian language

The science of the Russian language is called Russian studies. She studies both the current state of the language and its history. It includes sections such as grammar (morphology and syntax), vocabulary, phraseology, phonetics, graphics, spelling, punctuation, orthoepy, word formation and style.

Prominent Russian scholars.

Founder modern science about the Russian language is considered M.V. Lomonosov, he wrote Russian grammar”, the first detailed description of the structure of the Russian language, developed the theory of three “calms”.

Another prominent Russian scholar was V.I. Dahl, who created the four-volume " Dictionary alive Great Russian language”(1883-1866), in which he reflected not only the literary language, but also many dialects.

Huge contribution Ushakov, Shcherba, Potebnya, Ozhegov and others contributed to the study of the Russian language.

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