The ability to find exact words for naming certain concepts helps to achieve brevity in expressing thoughts, and, on the contrary, the author’s stylistic helplessness often leads to Speech redundancy speech redundancy - verbosity.
Scientists and writers A.P. Chekhov repeatedly drew attention to verbosity as a great evil: “Brevity is the sister of talent.” A. M. Gorky wrote that laconism, as well as accuracy of presentation, are not easy for the writer: “. . . It is extremely difficult to find the exact words and put them in such a way that a lot is said to a few, “so that words are cramped, thoughts are spacious” ”Gorky M. Collected Works: In 30 t. M., 1953. T. 24. S. 490. .
Versatility appears in various forms. Often one can observe an obsessive explanation of well-known truths: Consumption of milk is a good tradition, not only children eat milk, the need for milk, the habit of milk persists until old age. Is this a bad habit? Should it be abandoned? - Not! Such idle talk is, of course, suppressed by the editor: arguments that are not of informative value are excluded during literary editing. However, such an edit-abbreviation is not directly related to lexical style, since it does not affect lexical side text, but its content.
The subject of lexical stylistics is verbal redundancy that occurs when the same thought is repeated, for example: They were shocked by the spectacle of the fire they witnessed; Our athletes arrived at international competitions in order to take part in competitions in which not only ours, but also foreign athletes will participate; He could not remain aloof from family conflicts, as the husband of a woman and the father of children; The machine park was updated with new machines (highlighted words are superfluous).
Sometimes the manifestation of verbal redundancy borders on the absurd: The corpse was dead and did not hide it. Stylists call such examples of verbosity Lapalissiadas Lapalissiadas. The origin of this term is not without interest: it was formed on behalf of the French marshal Marquis La Palis, who died in 1525. The soldiers composed a song about him, in which were the words: Our commander was alive 25 minutes before his death. The absurdity of the lapalissiada lies in the assertion of a self-evident truth.
Lapalissiades give speech an inappropriate comedy, often in situations that arose as a result of tragic circumstances. For example: Since the responsible editor of the collection has died, it is necessary to introduce a new living editor to the editorial board; dead corpse lay motionless and showed no signs of life.
Speech redundancy Speech redundancy can take the form of pleonasm. Pleonasm Pleonasm (from Gr. pleonasmos - excess) is the use in speech of similar extra words (main point, everyday routine, uselessly disappears, anticipate in advance, valuable treasures, dark darkness, etc.). Often pleonasms appear when the synonyms kissed and kissed are combined; long and lengthy; courageous and bold; only; nevertheless, however; for example.
Even A. S. Pushkin, considering brevity as one of the merits of the work, reproached P. A. Vyazemsky in a letter to him for the fact that in his fairy tale “The Line of the Terrain” the speech of one of the characters is “stretched”, and the phrase “Even more painfully doubly hardly Is it not pleonasm ”Pushkin A. S. Collected works: In 10 vols. M., 1977. T. 9. S. 124. .
Pleonasms usually arise due to the stylistic negligence of the author. For example: Local forest workers are not limited only to the protection of the taiga, but they also do not allow the richest gifts of nature to be wasted in vain. When stylistic editing, the highlighted words must be excluded. However, this manifestation of speech redundancy should be distinguished from "imaginary pleonasm", to which the author deliberately refers as a means of enhancing the expressiveness of speech. In this case, pleonasm becomes a striking stylistic device. Let's remember F. Tyutchev: The vault of heaven, burning with star glory. It looks mysteriously from the depths, And we float, surrounded by a flaming abyss on all sides; S. Yesenina: Give me a paw, Jim, for good luck. I have never seen such a paw. Let's bark with you in the moonlight on quiet, noiseless weather. . . Another example: The time when the history of our country was rewritten for the sake of a false ideology will not return back (from the newspaper).
The use of pleonastic combinations is also characteristic of folklore: Where are you going, Volga? Where are you heading? To give you a place by name, by patronymic. . . In oral folk art, expressively colored pleonastic combinations of sadness-longing, sea-okian, path-path and so on have traditionally been used.
A variation of Pleonasmpleonasm is Tautology tautology (from Gr. tauto - the same thing, logos - a word). Tautology as a phenomenon of lexical stylistics can arise when repeating words with the same root (tell a story, multiply many times, ask a question, resume again), as well as when combining a foreign and Russian word that duplicates its meaning (memorable souvenirs, debuted for the first time, an unusual phenomenon that drives keynote). AT last case sometimes talk about Tautology: Hidden Hidden Tautology.
The repetition of words with the same root, creating a tautology, is a very common mistake (The plaintiff proves his case with unsubstantiated evidence; The increase in crime has increased; Citizens are pedestrians! Cross the street only at pedestrian crossings!). The use of single-root words creates unnecessary "marking time", for example:. . . It follows quite naturally that the productivity of labor at certain stages of the development of technology is determined by quite definite laws. In order to comprehend such a statement, it is necessary, first of all, to get rid of the tautology. The following variant of stylistic correction is possible: A well-founded conclusion follows that labor productivity at various stages of technological development is determined by objective laws.
However, the repetition of cognate words should not always be considered as stylistic error. Many stylists rightly believe that it is not always necessary to exclude single-root words from sentences, replacing them with synonyms: in some cases this is impossible, in others it can lead to impoverishment, discoloration of speech.
Several cognates in a close context are stylistically justified if related words are the only carriers of the corresponding meanings and cannot be replaced by synonyms (coach - to train; elections, voters - to choose; habit - to wean; close - cover; cook - jam, etc.). How to avoid, say, the use of single-root words when you need to say: White flowers bloomed on the bushes; Is the book edited by the editor-in-chief?
There are many tautological combinations in the language, the use of which is inevitable, since they use terminological vocabulary(vocabulary foreign words, link fifth link, foreman of the first brigade, etc.). We have to put up with such, for example, word usage: investigating authorities. . . investigated; suffer from Graves' disease; the seam is cut by a cutting machine, etc.
Many etymologically related words in modern language lost word-building connections (cf .: remove - raise - understand - hug - accept, song - rooster, morning - tomorrow). Such words, having a common etymological root, do not form tautological phrases (black ink, red paint, white linen).
TautologyTautology, which occurs when a Russian word and a foreign word are combined, which coincide in meaning, usually indicates that the speaker does not understand the exact meaning of the borrowed word. This is how combinations of a young child prodigy, meager little things, an interior, a leading leader, a break interval, etc. appear. Tautological combinations of this type sometimes become acceptable and are fixed in speech, which is associated with a change in the meanings of words. An example of loss of tautology would be a combination of time periods. In the past, linguists considered this expression tautological, since the Greek word period means "time". However, the word period gradually acquired the meaning of "a period of time", and therefore the expression period of time became possible. Combinations of a monumental monument, reality, exhibits of an exhibition, a second-hand book and some others have also become fixed in speech, because in them definitions have ceased to be a simple repetition of the main feature already contained in the word being defined. The tautology that occurs when using abbreviations in scientific and official business styles does not require stylistic editing, for example: SI system [i.e. e. "System System International" (about physical units)]; Institute BelNIISH (Institute Belarusian Scientific Research Institute of Agriculture).
Tautology Tautology, like pleonasm, can be a stylistic device that enhances the effectiveness of speech. AT colloquial speech such tautological combinations are used as to serve, all sorts of things, bitter grief, etc., introducing a special expression. Tautology underlies many phraseological units (eat, see the views, walk with a shaker, sit in the seat, chock-full, go to waste). Especially important stylistic significance is acquired by tautological repetitions in artistic speech, mainly - in the poetic.
There are tautological combinations of several types: combinations with a tautological epithet (And it was not old again, but new and victorious. - Sl.), with a tautological instrumental case (And suddenly a birch was white and white in a gloomy spruce forest. - Sol.). Tautological combinations in the text stand out against the background of other words; this makes it possible, resorting to tautology, to pay attention to especially important concepts (So, lawlessness was legalized; Less and less remains with nature unsolved mysteries). An important semantic function is played by tautology in the headlines of newspaper articles (“ green shield asks for protection"; "Extremes far north”, “Is it an accident?”, “Is the old bicycle obsolete?”).
Tautological repetition can give the statement a special significance, aphorism (To the winner of the student from the defeated teacher. - Beetle.; Fortunately, the fashionable circle is now completely out of fashion. - P.; And the old days are outdated, and the old is delirious with novelty. - P.). As a source of speech expression, tautology is especially effective if cognate words are compared as synonyms (It’s as if they hadn’t seen each other for two years, their kiss was long, long. - Ch.), Antonyms and antonyms (When did we learn to be strangers? When did we forget how to speak? - Evt. ).
Like any repetitions, tautological combinations increase emotionality journalistic speech[The Seventh Symphony (by Shostakovich) is dedicated to the triumph of the human in man. . . The composer responded to the threat of fascism - to dehumanize a person - with a symphony about the victorious triumph of everything high and beautiful. - A. T.].
The stringing of words with the same root is used in gradation (from Latin gradatio - gradualness) - a stylistic figure based on a consistent increase or decrease in emotional and expressive significance (Oh! for the sake of our past days of lost, ruined happiness, do not destroy in my soul to the past the last lot! - Og.).
In expressively colored speech, tautological repetitions, like the repetition of sounds, can become means of expression phonics (Then tractors with guns pulled, field kitchen passed, then the infantry went. - Shol.). Poets often combine both techniques - the repetition of roots and the repetition of sounds (Everything is fine: the poet sings, the critic criticizes. - Mayak.).
The possibility of a punning clash of cognate words makes it possible to use tautology as a means of creating comedy, satirical coloring. This technique was brilliantly mastered by N. V. Gogol, M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin (Let me not allow this; The writer pees, and the reader reads). As a means of comic use tautology and contemporary authors humorous stories, feuilletons, jokes (Efficiency: Do not do it, but you can’t redo all the things; The cow, nicknamed God’s, godlessly destroys potato plantings. - “LG”).
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/55737375_437013758.pdf-img/55737375_437013758.pdf-1.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> Lexical style ">
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/55737375_437013758.pdf-img/55737375_437013758.pdf-2.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> Man found words for everything he discovered in the universe. But this"> Человек нашел слова для всего, что обнаружено им во вселенной. Но этого мало. Он назвал всякое действие и состояние. Он определил словами свойства и качества всего, что его окружает. Словарь отражает все изменения, происходящие в мире. Он запечатлел опыт и мудрость веков и, не отставая, сопутствует жизни, развитию техники, науки, искусства. Он может назвать любую вещь и располагает средствами для выражения самых отвлеченных и обобщающих идей и понятий. С. Маршак!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/55737375_437013758.pdf-img/55737375_437013758.pdf-3.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> The leading role of the word in the system language tools determines its place in the style "> The leading role of the word in the system of language means determines its place in the style of the language: the word is the main stylistic unit. Lexical stylistics studies the correlative lexical means of the language, assessing the use of the word in a specific speech situation and developing recommendations for normative word usage in various functional styles.
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/55737375_437013758.pdf-img/55737375_437013758.pdf-4.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> Lexical stylistics studies: Combination Polysemy Synonymy Antonymy Homonymy Paronymy and paronomasia"> Лексическая стилистика изучает: Сочетаемость Полисемию Синонимию Антонимию Омонимию Паронимию и парономазию Устаревшие слова (архаизмы) Неологизмы Тропы!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/55737375_437013758.pdf-img/55737375_437013758.pdf-5.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> Semantic accuracy speech. The choice of a word Unclear speech is a constant sign of ambiguity "> Semantic accuracy of speech. Word choice Unclear speech is a constant sign of ambiguity of thought, L. N. Tolstoy argued; jokingly, the writer remarked: “If I were a king, I would issue a law that a writer who uses a word, the meaning of which he cannot explain, is deprived of the right to write and receives 100 blows of the rod.
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/55737375_437013758.pdf-img/55737375_437013758.pdf-6.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> A. P. Chekhov spoke of his work in the following way: “. . ."> А. П. Чехов так отзывался о своей работе: «. . . Я занят, занят по горло: пишу и зачеркиваю, пишу и зачеркиваю. . Я не хочу признавать рассказов без помарок» . Упрекая одного из молодых писателей в небрежности, А. П. Чехов напоминал: «Рукописи всех настоящих мастеров испачканы, перечеркнуты вдоль и поперек, потерты и покрыты латками, в свою очередь перечеркнутыми и изгаженными» . И рекомендовал работать так: «Надо рассказ писать 5 -6 дней и думать о нем все время. . . Надо, чтобы каждая фраза, прежде чем лечь на бумагу, пролежала в мозгу дня два. . . »!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/55737375_437013758.pdf-img/55737375_437013758.pdf-7.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> Speech errors caused by incorrect word choice good rest(instead of "> Speech errors caused by the wrong choice of the word The weather accompanied a good rest (instead of favorable); Martens will soon have an inheritance (meaning offspring); I want to continue the family dynasty and therefore decided to become an officer (instead of tradition).
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/55737375_437013758.pdf-img/55737375_437013758.pdf-8.jpg" alt="(!LANG:>Using words without taking into account their semantics can cause illogicality and even absurdity"> Употребление слов без учета их семантики может стать причиной алогичности и даже абсурдности высказывания. В одном очерке было написано: «. . . И стоят наши дальневосточные березки в своем подвенечном саване» (автор перепутал саван и фату).!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/55737375_437013758.pdf-img/55737375_437013758.pdf-9.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> word usage,"> Due to inaccurate word usage, anachronism may occur (violation of chronological accuracy when using words related to a particular historical era): AT Ancient Rome plebeians dissatisfied with the laws organized rallies (the word "rally" appeared much later, and in England); In the 18th century, several printing houses were closed in Leningrad (the name of the city on the Neva, which the author used, was unknown in the 18th century, it should have been written: in St. Petersburg).
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/55737375_437013758.pdf-img/55737375_437013758.pdf-10.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> Alogism - comparison of disparate concepts, for example: The syntax of encyclopedic articles is different from"> Алогизм - сопоставление несопоставимых понятий, например: Синтаксис энциклопедических статей отличен от других научных статей. Получается, что синтаксис сравнивается с !} scientific articles. Eliminating alogism, you can write: The syntax of encyclopedic articles differs from the syntax of other scientific articles, or: The syntax of encyclopedic articles has a number of features that are unusual for the syntax of other scientific articles. Identification and correction of alogism does not cause difficulties.
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/55737375_437013758.pdf-img/55737375_437013758.pdf-11.jpg" alt="(! LANG:> city is on display"> Причиной алогизма может стать подмена понятия: Плохо, когда во всех кинотеатрах города демонстрируется одно и то же название фильма. Демонстрируется фильм, а не его название, исправим: Плохо, когда во всех кинотеатрах города демонстрируется один и тот же фильм. Такие ошибки в речи возникают и вследствие недостаточно четкой дифференциации понятий, например: Приближения дня премьеры коллектив театра ждет с особым волнением (ждут не приближения премьеры, а когда состоится премьера).!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/55737375_437013758.pdf-img/55737375_437013758.pdf-12.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> Our speech is also made illogical by the unjustified expansion or narrowing of the concept resulting from confusion"> Нелогичной нашу речь делает и неоправданное расширение или сужение понятия, возникающее вследствие смешения родовых и видовых категорий: При !} good care from each animal you can milk 12 liters. milk (it was necessary to use not a generic name - an animal, but a species name - a cow); At any time of the day, medicine should come to the aid of the child. It was necessary to write: At any time of the day, medicine should come to the aid of the patient (after all, in medical care not only children need
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/55737375_437013758.pdf-img/55737375_437013758.pdf-13.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> Generic names often seem more significant to the speaker, give the impression of "importance" utterances.Therefore, a person"> Родовые наименования нередко представляются говорящим более значительными, создают впечатление «важности» высказывания. Поэтому человек, желающий высказаться «покультурнее» , не решается порой назвать шапку шапкой, а пиджаком. И произносит вместо этого строгие слова: головной убор или верхняя одежда. К. И. Чуковский в книге «Живой как жизнь» вспоминал, как при подготовке радиопередачи «отредактировали» выступление молодого литератора, который собирался сказать: «Прошли сильные дожди» . «Заведующий клубом поморщился: - Так не годится. Надо бы литературнее. Напишите -ка лучше вот этак: «Выпали обильные осадки» .!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/55737375_437013758.pdf-img/55737375_437013758.pdf-14.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> Lexical compatibility The doctrine of lexical compatibility is based on the position of Acad."> Лексическая сочетаемость В основе учения о лексической сочетаемости лежит положение акад. В. В. Виноградова о фразеологически !} related values words that have single compatibility (bosom friend) or limited compatibility possibilities (stale bread, loaf; stale person, but you can’t say stale candy (chocolate), stale comrade (father, son).
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/55737375_437013758.pdf-img/55737375_437013758.pdf-15.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> Combining words into phrases may encounter various restrictions. 1) words can"> Соединение слов в словосочетания может наталкиваться на разного рода ограничения. 1)слова могут не сочетаться из-за их смысловой несовместимости (фиолетовый апельсин, облокотился спиной, вода горит); 2)объединение слов в словосочетание может быть исключено в силу их грамматической природы (мой - плыть, близко - веселый); 3)объединению слов могут препятствовать их лексические особенности (слова, обозначающие, казалось бы, соединимые понятия, не сочетаются; говорят причинить горе, неприятности, но нельзя сказать причинить радость, удовольствие).!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/55737375_437013758.pdf-img/55737375_437013758.pdf-16.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> Three types of combination Semantic Grammar (syntactic) Lexical">!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/55737375_437013758.pdf-img/55737375_437013758.pdf-17.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> Violation semantic compatibility To date, there is no information yet; Necessary "> Violation of semantic compatibility To date, there is still no information; It is necessary to speed up the settlement of bloodshed; My father's maiden name is Sobakin; After the death of Lensky in a duel, Olga married a hussar ... Funny combinations of words, isn't it? But if you think about it, in others cases, a very undesirable underlying meaning arises: not to stop, but only to settle the bloodshed? . .
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/55737375_437013758.pdf-img/55737375_437013758.pdf-18.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> Incompatibility violation A parody example of incompatibility is known: My yours"> Нарушение грамматической сочетаемости Пародийный пример нарушения грамматической сочетаемости известен: Моя твоя не понимает (!} possessive adjectives cannot be combined with verbs in personal form). More examples: Our leader is healthy inside and out. Most of the time deputies spend on discussions.
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/55737375_437013758.pdf-img/55737375_437013758.pdf-19.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> Lexical inconsistency The voice of numbers is not comforting; In the recent past, we have"> Нарушение лексической сочетаемости Голос цифр не утешителен; В недалеком прошлом у нас всем зажимали языки. Яркий эффект «обманутого ожидания» юмористы обыгрывают в едких шутках: Мы потерпели победу и больше не вправе медлить; Достигли зияющих вершин.!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/55737375_437013758.pdf-img/55737375_437013758.pdf-20.jpg" alt="(!LANG:>Stylistic use of synonyms in speech Types of lexical synonyms Considering semantic and stylistic"> Стилистическое использование в речи синонимов Типы лексических синонимов Учитывая смысловые и стилистические отличия синонимов, их разделяют на несколько групп. 1) Синонимы, различающиеся оттенками в значениях, называются семантическими (от гр. semantikos - обозначающий) (молодость - юность, красный - багровый - алый).!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/55737375_437013758.pdf-img/55737375_437013758.pdf-21.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> 2) Synonyms that have same value, but differ stylistic coloring, are called stylistic."\u003e 2) Synonyms that have the same meaning, but differ in stylistic coloring, are called stylistic. These include: 1) synonyms belonging to different functional styles of speech [cf .: live (interst.) - live (official . -del.), newlyweds (official) - young (colloquial)]; 2) synonyms belonging to the same functional style, but having different emotional and expressive shades [cf .: (colloquial) sensible (with positive coloration) - brainy, big-headed (with a tinge of rough-familiar); said - blurted out - blurted out - chipped off - soaked - gave out].
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/55737375_437013758.pdf-img/55737375_437013758.pdf-22.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> 3) Synonyms that differ both in meaning and in their stylistic coloring are called semantic-stylistic:"> 3) Синонимы, которые отличаются и по смыслу, и своей стилистической окраской, называются семантико-стилистическими: бродить – блуждать - шататься -шляться - все эти синонимы имеют !} general meaning"go without specific purpose", but they differ in semantic shades: the word wander has an additional meaning" to stray, lose the way"; in the word stagger there is a connotation "to walk without doing anything"; the verb to wander emphasizes disobedience, disobedience. In addition, the given synonyms also differ in stylistic coloring: wander - stylistically neutral word, wander has more book coloring, stagger and wander around - vernacular, and the latter is rude.
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/55737375_437013758.pdf-img/55737375_437013758.pdf-23.jpg" alt="(!LANG:>Emotionally expressive coloration of synonyms stylistically neutral: reduced: high: face muzzle"> Эмоционально-экспрессивная окраска синонимов стилистически-нейтральные: сниженные: высокие: лицо морда лик препятствие помеха преграда плакать реветь рыдать бояться трусить опасаться прогнать выставить изгнать!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/55737375_437013758.pdf-img/55737375_437013758.pdf-24.jpg" alt="(!LANG:>The stylistic use of Antonymy antonyms in speech, reflecting the essential side of system connections in"> Стилистическое использование в речи антонимов Антонимия, отражая существенную сторону системных связей в лексике, охватывает слова, противопоставленные по значению: правда - ложь, добрый - злой, говорить - молчать. !} Modern lexicology considers synonymy and antonymy as extreme, limiting cases of interchangeability and opposition of words in their content. At the same time, if semantic similarity is characteristic of synonymic relations, then semantic difference is characteristic of antonymic relations.
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/55737375_437013758.pdf-img/55737375_437013758.pdf-25.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> Antonyms are paired by contrast. However, this does not mean that either"> Антонимы объединяются в пары по контрасту. Однако это не значит, что то или иное слово может иметь лишь один антоним. Синонимические отношения слов позволяют выражать противопоставление понятий и в «незакрытом» , многочленном ряду: конкретный - абстрактный - отвлеченный, веселый - грустный - печальный - унылый - скучный - кручинный.!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/55737375_437013758.pdf-img/55737375_437013758.pdf-26.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> Main stylistic function antonyms - to be a lexical means of expressing the antithesis. Antithesis as a stylistic "> The main stylistic function of antonyms is to be a lexical means of expressing antithesis. Antithesis as stylistic device widespread in folk poetry, for example in proverbs: Learning is light, and ignorance is darkness; Softly spread, but hard to sleep. Classic examples use of the antithesis gives Russian fiction: You are rich, I am very poor. You are a prose writer, I am a poet. You are blush, like a poppy color, I, like death, are both skinny and pale (P.); Goodbye, unwashed Russia, a country of slaves, a country of masters, And you, blue uniforms, and you, a people devoted to them (L.); I see sad eyes, I hear cheerful speech (A.K.T.).
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/55737375_437013758.pdf-img/55737375_437013758.pdf-27.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> Many titles of works are based on the principle of antithesis: "War and Peace""> По принципу антитезы построены многие заглавия произведений: «Война и мир» (Л. Т.); «Дни и ночи» , «Живые и мертвые» (Сим.). Особенно часто используется антонимия в заголовках газетных и !} journal articles: “Chemistry good and evil”, “Incomes and expenses”, “A dead system does not hear living people”, “Retro and modern are nearby”, “Seeing tragic and cheerful”, “Geography is different, biographies are similar”, “Poverty with wealth "," Maxi-passion for futsal ".
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/55737375_437013758.pdf-img/55737375_437013758.pdf-28.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> The phenomenon of antonymy underlies the oxymoron (from Gr. oxýmoron - witty -stupid)"> Явление антонимии лежит в основе оксюморона (от гр. oxýmoron - остроумно-глупое) - стилистического приема образной речи, состоящего в создании нового понятия соединением контрастных по значению слов. Сочетание антонимов в «чистом виде» в оксюмороне встречается редко: «Начало конца» (заголовок статьи), «Плохой хороший человек» (название кинофильма), В разгар периода застоя… (из газ.). В большинстве случаев это сущ. +прил. , имеющие противоположное значение: «Крупные мелочи» , «Дорогая дешевизна» , «Неудобные удобства» (заголовки), поэтому это не антонимы в точном значении термина (антонимы должны принадлежать одной части речи).!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/55737375_437013758.pdf-img/55737375_437013758.pdf-29.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> Puns are built on antonyms: Where does the beginning of the end that ends"> На антонимах строятся каламбуры: Где начало того конца, которым оканчивается начало? (К. П.) Было так поздно, что стало уже рано (Солж.). В таких случаях игра слов возникает благодаря употреблению !} polysemantic words, which act as antonyms not in all meanings: Young was no longer young. - I. and P.
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/55737375_437013758.pdf-img/55737375_437013758.pdf-30.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> A special stylistic device is the use of one of the antonyms, while on"> Особый стилистический прием - использование одного из антонимов, в то время как по смыслу следовало бы употребить другой: - Отколе, умная, бредешь ты голова? (Кр.). Слово умная сказано в насмешку по отношению к Ослу. И читатель понимает, что за этим определением стоит его антоним - глупая. Употребление слова в противоположном значении называется антифразисом.!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/55737375_437013758.pdf-img/55737375_437013758.pdf-31.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> Homonymy (from gr. homos - same, ónyma - name) , i.e."> Омонимия (от гр. homos - одинаковый, ónyma - имя), т. е. совпадение в звучании и написании слов, различных по значению, напоминает многозначность, однако здесь сталкиваются совершенно !} various words, coinciding in sound and spelling, but having nothing in common in semantics. Eg. : marriage in the meaning of "matrimony" and marriage - "damaged products". The first word is formed from the verb brother with the help of the suffix -k (cf. to marry), the homonymous noun was borrowed from late XVII in. from German language(German Brack - “lack” goes back to the verb brechen - “break”.
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/55737375_437013758.pdf-img/55737375_437013758.pdf-32.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> Similar phenomena Homophones are words that sound the same,"> Смежные сомонимией явления Омофоны - слова, которые звучат одинаково, но пишутся по-разному: луг – лук, грипп - гриб; Омографы - слова, которые совпадают только на письме, но отличаются произношением: кр. Ужки – кружк. И, попад. Ают - поп. Адают; Омоформы - слова !} different parts speeches coinciding in some forms I fly (fly) - I fly (treat).
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/55737375_437013758.pdf-img/55737375_437013758.pdf-33.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> Individual-author homonymy Writers sometimes interpret famous words in a new way, creating individual author's homonyms: ."> Индивидуально-авторская омонимия Писатели иногда по-новому толкуют известные слова, создавая индивидуально-авторские омонимы: . . . Я всю зиму провел в здешнем краю. Я говорю, что я остепенился, потому что зарылся в степь (Вяз.). При подобном переосмыслении «родственными» представляются слова, вовсе не связанные общностью происхождения. Индивидуально- авторские омонимы часто очень забавны, они лежат в основе многих шуток: гусар - птичник, работник гусиной фермы; дерюга - зубной врач; доходяга - победитель в спортивной ходьбе; весельчак - гребец; пригубить - поцеловать.!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/55737375_437013758.pdf-img/55737375_437013758.pdf-34.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> Paronymy and paronomasia Same-root words that sound similar, but do not match"> Паронимия и парономазия Однокоренные слова, близкие по звучанию, но не совпадающие в значениях (узнать - признать, одеть - надеть, подпись - роспись), называются паронимами (из гр. para - возле, onyma - имя). Паронимы, как правило, относятся к одной и той же части речи и выполняют в предложении аналогичные !} syntactic functions.
Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/55737375_437013758.pdf-img/55737375_437013758.pdf-35.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> Paronomasia The phenomenon of paronomasia (from gr. para - near, onomazo -"> Парономазия Явление парономазии (из гр. para - возле, onomazo - называю) заключается в звуковом подобии слов, имеющих разные морфологические корни (ср. : нары - нарты, лоцман - боцман, кларнет - корнет, инъекция - инфекция). Лексические пары при парономазии принадлежат к одной части речи, выполняют в предложении аналогичные синтаксические функции. У таких слов могут быть одинаковые приставки, суффиксы, окончания, но корни у них всегда разные. Кроме случайного фонетического сходства, слова в подобных лексических парах ничего общего не имеют.!}
The main objectives of this chapter are:
1. Establish a connection between stylistics and language features;
2. Define the concept of a stylistic feature;
3. Find out with the help of what functions stylistic features are expressed in the language;
Maxim Gorky wrote about language:
“Language is the primary element, the main material of literature, i.e. vocabulary, syntax, the whole structure of speech is the primary element, the key to understanding the ideas and images of the work. But language is also an instrument of literature: “The struggle for purity, for semantic accuracy, for sharpness of language is a struggle for an instrument of culture. The sharper this tool, the more accurately directed - the more victorious it is ”[Gorky M. Electronic resource].
From this we understand that language occupies an extremely important place in our life. It can be an assistant for expressing some thoughts, understanding ideas and images, but it is also important to remember that it is equally a tool, and it all depends on people, how skillfully they use it, whether it will bring good or evil. And in order to master the necessary communication skill, we study the functions of the language, ways and means of expressing thoughts, and, of course, styles, because different situations give us different settings for communication. And the science of stylistics is engaged in the study of styles.
Stylistics
Stylistics (the word "style" comes from the name of the needle, or stylet with which the ancient Greeks wrote on waxed tablets) is a branch of the science of language that studies the styles of the literary language (functional styles of speech), the patterns of functioning of the language in different areas use, features of the use of language means depending on the situation, content and goals of the statement, the scope and condition of communication. [Ozhegov S. I. Electronic resource].
Stylistics introduces the stylistic system of the literary language at all its levels and the stylistic organization (in compliance with the norms of the literary language), correct, accurate, logical and expressive speech. Stylistics teaches the conscious and expedient use of the laws of language and the use of linguistic means in speech.
There are two directions in linguistic stylistics:
1) the style of the language;
2) style of speech (functional style).
Language stylistics explores stylistic structure language, describes stylistic means vocabulary, phraseology and grammar.
Functional style
Functional stylistics studies, first of all, different types of speech, their conditionality by different goals of the utterance. M.N. Kozhina gives the following definition:
Functional style is linguistic science, which studies the features and patterns of the functioning of the language in various types speeches corresponding to certain areas human activity and communication, as well as the speech structure of the emerging functional styles and the “norms” of selection and combination of language means in them” [Kozhina M.N. Electronic resource].
At its core, style should be consistently functional. She must reveal the connection different types speech with the subject, the purpose of the statement, with the conditions of communication, the addressee of the speech, the attitude of the author to the subject of the speech.
Functional stylistics (linguistic stylistics) studies the elements of language in terms of their ability to express and evoke emotions, additional associations and evaluation.
Linguistics is also divided into levels:
1) lexical;
2) grammar;
3) phonetic style.
In this scientific work it is important to trace what effect the presence or absence of the article in sentences has and how the meaning and expressive coloring change from this. Therefore, we should stop at the lexical level.
Lexical style
Lexical stylistics studies the stylistic functions of vocabulary and considers the interaction of direct and figurative meanings. Lexical stylistics studies the different components of the contextual meanings of words, their expressive, emotional and evaluative potential and their relation to different functional and stylistic layers, i.e. the language is studied from the point of view of interaction with different contextual conditions. To determine what kind of expressive coloring this or that way of using parts of speech gives, there are some means, and one of them is the stylistic function.
The stylistic function is the role that the language tool plays in the transmission of expressive information:
Creation of artistic expressiveness;
Creation of pathos;
Creating a comic effect;
Hyperbola;
May be descriptive;
For creating speech characteristics hero.
And the main thing to remember is that the stylistic function belongs to the text, and studies the features within it, while the functional-stylistic coloring belongs to the language.
Conclusions on chapter 2
In the daily hustle and bustle, a person is faced with different situations in which he must be able to correctly deliver his speech and choose the style of communication. For comfortable communication in society, anyone needs basic knowledge of style.
Like any branch of the science of language, stylistics has a kind of classification, which is divided into stylistics of language and stylistics of speech.
In this work, we focus on functional stylistics, as it studies the elements of language that help to convey emotional coloring to our speech and make communication more expressive.
coursework
Work
Subject: __________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
student: _______________________ ___________
teacher: _______________________ ___________
Introduction
Main part
1. Lexical style
2. Stylistic morphology
3. Stylistic syntax
4. Phonetics
Conclusion
Bibliographic list
Introduction
The subject of this term paper"A stylistic analysis of the text of the popular science publication" Growing and raising a puppy.
The main purpose of the presented work is a stylistic analysis of the selected edition, which includes several important sections: lexical, morphological, syntactic and phonics.
The main goals of the editor when editing are to eliminate errors in content, composition and style, correct speech errors, add clarity to wording and process text for a wide range readers. When editing, the editor must take into account the characteristics of the reader in order to correctly convey the idea of the text.
The social and functional purpose of a popular science publication is to popularize scientific knowledge, achievements, science, culture, technology, art, etc. among non-specialists or specialists. The editor must be able to take into account the author's desire to convey to the reader the features of his presentation, so the editor's task is not to overload the text with unnecessary nuances and details so as not to tire his reader.
The structure of the course work:
1. Introduction
2. Lexical style
3. Morphological style
4. Syntactic style
5. Phonetics
6. Conclusion
The course work consists of three main parts: lexical, morphological and syntactic stylistics.
The section "Lexical stylistics" considers the stylistic features of polysemantic words, antonyms, homonyms, synonyms, paronyms and corrects errors associated with the use of this vocabulary. Also produced detailed analysis borrowings, obsolete words and neologisms, dialectisms, special words and jargon. Expressive means of vocabulary and stylistic features of phraseological units are considered and analyzed.
In the section "Morphological stylistics" the features of nominal parts of speech, verbs, pronouns are considered, errors associated with their use are identified and corrected. An analysis is made of the variance of forms of nouns, adjectives, personal, reflexive and reflexive possessive pronouns, synonymy of personal, definitive and indefinite pronouns.
The section "Syntactic stylistics" considers the stylistic features of simple and complex syntactic constructions, agreement of predicates with the subject, definitions with the word being defined, control, direct and reverse word order, etc.
I. Lexico-stylistic analysis of the edition
Lexical style
In this part of the course work, it is necessary to indicate the stylistic features of polysemantic words, homonyms, synonyms, antonyms, paronyms. It is necessary to correct, if possible, the errors associated with the use of this vocabulary and to characterize given vocabulary according to the classification. An analysis of obsolete and new vocabulary (historicisms, archaisms, neologisms) should be given, it is also necessary to analyze special vocabulary, which includes dialectisms, jargon and professionalisms. Another stylistic analysis in this section involves the characterization of the expressive means of vocabulary (tropes) and the stylistic analysis of phraseological features.
homonymy- different in meaning, but identical in spelling units of the language (words, morphemes, etc.). Full (absolute) homonyms - homonyms that have the same entire system of forms: snake- animal, snake- tempter, villain and snake- air. Kite- a device for launching it into the sky and controlling it on the ground with the help of a thread.
An example from the text of the publication:
“In dogs, the most “multifunctional” organ is language.»
language bells (tongue is the percussive part of the bell that fits inside it)
language- human organ
language- speech, way of communication
homographs Words that have the same spelling but different sound and meaning. This type of homonyms can create ambiguous and incomprehensible situations, but there are cases where they cannot be replaced by a synonym.
Examples from the text of the edition:
"Just take away food for the puppy until the next feeding."
I'm going - I'm going
"Should avoid buying meat cheaper.
avoid- avoid
Such cases of using homographs broaden the reader's horizons and vocabulary.
Synonymous in the full sense, one should consider such a word that is defined in relation to its equivalent (to another word with an identical or extremely close meaning) and can be opposed to it along any line: by a subtle shade in meaning, by expressed expression, by emotional coloring, by stylistic affiliation, by compatibility (a scientific definition from the dictionary of synonyms of the Russian language (gen. ed. by A.P. Evgenyeva) is given in the textbook by D.E. Rozental).
An example from the text of the publication:
“From the first days of life, provide a puppy systematic, daily physical activity»
Antonyms- words that are opposite in meaning (S.I. Ozhegov). The basis of antonymy is the presence in the meaning of the word of a qualitative feature that can increase and decrease and reach the opposite (D.E. Rosenthal, M.A. Telenkova).
An example from the text of the publication:
“Hearing a familiar command and seeing that you running back, the puppy in most cases will rush and run up to you."
The use of synonyms and antonyms in children's literature is aimed at expanding the reader's horizons, creating imagery and concretizing the situation. The author correctly uses these lexical figures, does not violate their basic functions.
Outdated vocabulary. Obsolete words are divided into two groups: historicisms and archaisms. To historicism include those obsolete words that have fallen out of use due to the fact that the objects or phenomena they designate have gone out of life: armyak, caftan, camisole, chain mail, serf, prince, armor, etc. Historicisms have no synonyms in modern Russian.
Unlike historicism, archaisms- these are outdated names of modern objects, phenomena, displaced by synonyms from the composition active vocabulary. Compare: this - this, mouth - lips, forehead - forehead, neck - neck, green - very, eyelids - eyelids, mirror - mirror, etc.
No obsolete vocabulary was found in this edition.
Neologism (ancient Greek νέος - new, λόγος - speech, word) - a word, the meaning of a word or a phrase that has recently appeared in the language (newly formed, previously absent). The freshness and unusualness of such a word or phrase is clearly felt by native speakers of this language.
This term is used in the history of the language to characterize the enrichment of the vocabulary into separate historical periods- so, we can talk about the neologisms of the time of Peter the Great, the neologisms of individual cultural figures (M. V. Lomonosov, N. M. Karamzin and his school), the neologisms of the period Patriotic War etc.
In developed languages, tens of thousands of neologisms appear every year. Most of them have short life, but some are fixed in the language for a long time, enter not only into its living everyday fabric, but also become an integral part of literature.
The science that studies neologisms is called neology.
Examples from the text of the edition:
“To teach this dog is quite simple, but it may take him one or two weeks to learn how to hold equilibrium.»
“It is important to allocate a separate thermometer- none of the family members should use it (purely for hygienic reasons).»
The figurative meaning of the word- this is a derivative of the main (main) lexical meaning of a word, relating to it metonymically, metaphorically or associatively, through spatial, temporal, logical and other dependencies. The figurative meaning can become the main one and vice versa. Such changes in semantic structure words can be conditioned by emotional-evaluative, associative and other factors of influence. Within the main ways of forming a figurative meaning, additional ones are distinguished, such as a metaphor with the help of which the author builds an unnamed comparison of an object with any other on the basis of a common feature; and personification, a device by which animals are endowed with human abilities.
The text contains the following examples of metaphor:
“He, and after him 11 more people passed single file, strictly next to next"
Metonymy- a phrase in which one word is replaced by another, denoting an object (phenomenon) that is in one or another (spatial, temporal, etc.) connection with the object, which is indicated by the replaced word. The replacement word is used in figurative meaning. Metonymy should be distinguished from metaphor, with which it is often confused, while metonymy is based on the replacement of the word “by contiguity” (part instead of the whole or vice versa, representative instead of class or vice versa, receptacle instead of content or vice versa, etc.), and the metaphor is "by likeness".
Metonymy is often used in everyday speech and therefore it is not difficult to perceive this stylistic figure.
Metonymy was not found in this edition.
AT this work the author does not use much stylistic figures, with the exception of metaphors. There are no examples of such tropes as allegory and synecdoche in the text at all. This is explained by the fact that it is important to assimilate the information from the book, and the abundance of stylistic figures can interfere with this, distracting the reader to, in fact, not necessary information. At the same time, the figurativeness of speech, mainly literary, affects the expansion vocabulary reader, becoming own style speech and writing, forms creative thinking. Also, the figurativeness of the language is a method of popularizing and entertaining this publication.
Phraseologism (phraseological turn, phraseme) - stable in composition and structure, lexically indivisible and integral in meaning, a phrase or sentence that performs the function of a separate lexeme (vocabulary unit). Often phraseologism remains the property of only one language; the so-called phraseological tracing papers are an exception. Phraseological units are described in special phraseological dictionaries.
Concept phraseological units, as a stable phrase, the meaning of which cannot be deduced from the meanings of its constituent words, was first formulated by the Swiss linguist Charles Balli in Précis de stylistique, where he contrasted them with another type of phrases - phraseological groups with a variable combination of components. Later, V. V. Vinogradov singled out three main types of phraseological units: phraseological fusions (idioms), phraseological units and phraseological combinations. N. M. Shansky also identifies an additional type - phraseological expressions.
Phraseologisms were not found in this edition.
Epithet(from other Greek ἐπίθετον - “attached”) - a definition of a word that affects its expressiveness. It is expressed mainly by an adjective, but also by an adverb (“to love passionately”), a noun (“fun noise”), a numeral (second life).
An epithet is a word or a whole expression, which, due to its structure and special function in the text, acquires some new meaning or semantic connotation, helps the word (expression) to acquire color, richness. It is used both in poetry (more often) and in prose.
Having no definite position in the theory of literature, the name "epithet" is applied approximately to those phenomena that are called definitions in syntax, and adjectives in etymology; but the coincidence is only partial.
Theorists do not have an established view of the epithet: some attribute it to figures, others put it, along with figures and tropes, as an independent means of poetic representation; some identify the epithets decorating and permanent, others separate them; some consider the epithet an element exclusively poetic speech, others find it in prose as well.
Examples from the text of the edition:
« heavy movement…"
In sick dogs, their appetite worsens or completely disappears, they become sad, lethargic»
Speech redundancy- the presence of superfluous words in the statement, verbosity.
The subject of lexical stylistics is speech redundancy that occurs when the same thought is retransmitted, for example:
“Our athletes arrived at international competitions in order to accept participation in competitions, which will participate not only ours, but also foreign athletes.”
Speech redundancy was not found in this edition.
Speech insufficiency, which occurs as a result of unmotivated omission of words and manifests itself in laconic presentation to the detriment of content, sometimes leads to distortion or obscuration of the meaning of the statement.
Speech deficiency- random omission of words necessary for exact expression thoughts (I.B. Golub).
Due to speech insufficiency the grammatical and logical connections of words in the sentence are violated, its meaning is obscured. The omission of words can completely distort the author's thought, for example:
“In order to improve production performance, it is necessary to unite all workers involved in economic issues.”
AT this case we are seeing a speech impediment. This example needs to be corrected, for example:
“In order to improve production performance, it is necessary to combine efforts all workers involved in the economy"
Speech deficiency was not found in this edition.
Paronyms- words with the same root, similar in sound, but different in meaning or partially coinciding in their meaning (D.E. Rosenthal, M.A. Telenkova).
Professionalisms. To professional vocabulary include words and expressions used in various fields human activities, which, however, did not become common (I.B. Golub).
These words were not found in the publication.
Dialectisms- words or phrases from some dialect used in literary language(S.I. Ozhegov).
These words were not found in the publication.
jargon- the speech of some social or other group united by common interests, containing many words and expressions that differ from the common language, including artificial ones, sometimes conditional (S.I. Ozhegov).
These words were not found in the publication.
In the system of linguistic means, the word plays essential role. The dictionary reflects all the changes taking place in the world. He captured the experience and wisdom of centuries and, not lagging behind, accompanies life, the development of technology, science, and art.
The leading role of the word in the system of language means determines its place in the style of the language: the word is the main stylistic unit. Lexical stylistics studies the correlative lexical means of a language, assessing the use of a word in a specific speech situation and developing recommendations for normative word usage in various functional styles.
Using the achievements of modern semasiology, lexical stylistics studies the word in all the variety of systemic connections that exist in the language. This approach highlights the study of synonyms, antonyms, ambiguous words, paronyms, which serve as a means of the most accurate transmission of information. At the same time, stylistics draws attention to such phenomena as homonymy and paronomasia, which sometimes interfere correct perception speech. The focus of lexical stylistics is the stylistic stratification of vocabulary, evaluation of archaisms and neologisms, words limited use, analysis of patterns of use of stylistically significant lexical means in various areas of communication.
The stylistic aspect of the study of vocabulary requires a thoughtful assessment of the word in terms of its motivation in the context. Stylistics opposes both the use of superfluous words and the unjustified omission of words, considering various manifestations of speech redundancy and speech insufficiency.
The word is studied in stylistics not only in the nominative, but also in the aesthetic function. The subject of special interest of lexical stylistics are lexical figurative means language - trails.
The problems of lexical stylistics are closely related to the problems of the culture of speech. Characterizing the use of certain lexical means of the language in speech, stylistics stands guard over the correct word usage. The normative-stylistic approach to the study of vocabulary involves the analysis of frequently made speech errors: the use of a word without taking into account its semantics; violations of lexical compatibility; wrong choice of synonyms; incorrect use of antonyms, polysemantic words, homonyms; confusion of paronyms; unmotivated association of stylistically incompatible lexical means, etc. Elimination of lexical and stylistic errors in speech, choice the best option expressions of thought acquire essential in literary editing of texts.
Work on the style of a work is, first of all, work on its vocabulary, since the word is the basis for understanding speech.
The stylistic approach to the study of vocabulary puts forward as the most important problem the choice of a word for the most accurate expression of thought. The correct use of words by the author is not only the dignity of the style, but also necessary condition informative value of the work, the effectiveness of its content. The wrong choice of a word distorts the meaning of the statement, generating not only lexical, but also logical errors in speech.
Words should be used in strict accordance with their semantics, i.e. value. Each significant word It has lexical meaning, naming the phenomena and objects of reality, which in our minds correspond to certain concepts.
Search the right word
Searching for the only necessary word in the text requires tension from the writer creative forces and tireless work. This work is sometimes reflected in manuscripts that allow us to become familiar with lexical substitutions made by the author, polishing the style of the work. For example, in the draft of A.S. Pushkin "Dubrovsky" we find the following correction: Members (of the court) met him (Troekurov) with expressions of deep respect [deep devotion; deep servility] - the last word most expressively characterized the behavior of officials bribed by Troekurov, and the writer left it in the text.
N.V. worked a lot on their manuscripts. Gogol, L.N. Tolstoy, I.A. Goncharov, A.P. Chekhov, I.A. Bunin, A.I. Kuprin and other Russian writers. The desire to find the exact words encourages writers to edit the text by comparing possible options expressions of thought.
The stylistic correction of the writers in the manuscript reflects final stage work on the text, and what work preceded this, how many drafts were written and then destroyed, how many times the author said this or that phrase “to himself” before writing it down on paper - one can only guess about this.
Speech errors caused by incorrect word choice
During literary editing manuscripts, the editor often has to note errors in word usage. The wrong choice of word makes the speech inaccurate, and sometimes distorts the meaning of the statement: The weather accompanied a good rest (instead of favorable); Martens will soon have an inheritance (meaning offspring);
The use of words without considering their semantics changes the meaning of the statement: The beginning of 1992 was marked by a deterioration climatic conditions- blizzards, a sharp drop in temperature. The author had in mind, of course, weather conditions ( bad weather), the climate could not change in one year.
The use of words without taking into account their semantics can cause illogicality and even absurdity of the statement.
The inaccuracy of word usage is explained not only by low speech culture author; sometimes they deliberately do not want to use this or that word in order to veil the negative meaning of the statement. They write: he fantasizes instead of lying, he accepted gifts instead of taking bribes, etc. Recall an episode from the story of A.I. Kuprin “Inquiry”: “Ask him, did he take the tops from Esipaki?
Wrong word choice can cause various speech errors. So, due to inaccurate word usage, there may be anachronism(violation of chronological accuracy when using words associated with a certain historical era): In ancient Rome, plebeians dissatisfied with the laws held rallies (the word "rally" appeared much later, and in England);
Misuse of words often leads to logical errors. Among them we will name alogism- comparison of disparate concepts, for example: Syntax of encyclopedic articles
However, sometimes alogisms are not so obvious, and in order to eliminate them, one has to significantly change the author's text. For example: Our knowledge of the wealth of the bowels of the earth is only an insignificant part of the hidden, yet great wealth. We can offer the following options for stylistic editing of this phrase: We still know so little about the richest deposits of minerals, the secret of which is kept by the bowels of the earth; Huge riches are hidden in the bowels of the earth, about which we still know so little; Our knowledge of minerals is still so incomplete! We know only about an insignificant part of the wealth hidden in the bowels of the earth.
The reason for the illogical statement can be substitution of the concept, which often arises as a result of incorrect word usage: It is bad when the same movie title is shown in all the cinemas of the city. Of course, the film is being shown, not its title. You could write: It's bad when the same film is shown in all the cinemas of the city.
Our speech is also made illogical by the unjustified expansion or narrowing of the concept that arises as a result of mixing generic and specific categories: With good care from each animal, you can milk 12 liters of milk (it was not necessary to use the generic name - animal, but the specific name - cow);
The distortion of the meaning and even the absurdity of the statement arise as a result of the discrepancy between the premise and the consequence, for example: The speed of reproduction of pests depends on how persistently and systematically the fight against them is carried out. It turns out that the more they fight pests, the faster they multiply.
Lexical compatibility
For correct use words in speech is not enough to know them exact value, it is also necessary to take into account the peculiarities of the lexical compatibility of words, i.e. their ability to connect with each other. So, “similar” adjectives long, long, long, long, long are “attracted” to nouns in different ways: a long period, a long period (but not a long, long, long term);
Semantic compatibility is broken, for example, in such cases: By today, there is no information yet;
Violation of lexical compatibility is often explained misuse multi-valued words.
Lexical stylistics should focus on the assessment of lexical compatibility. However, the boundaries between various types combinability is very fuzzy, therefore, in the stylistic analysis of the text, one has to talk not only about “pure” lexical combinability, but also take into account various transitional cases.
Violation of lexical compatibility as a stylistic device
The assessment of lexical compatibility in expressive speech cannot be approached with the usual yardstick, here the laws of “attraction” of words to each other are special. In fiction and journalistic works, the boundaries of lexical compatibility can be expanded. For example, it has been noted that the restrictions of semantic compatibility do not apply to figurative word usage: phrases are possible that seem meaningless if their constituent words are understood in a literal sense (the sunset is burning, the years are flying, black thoughts). The semantic incompatibility of words is not an obstacle to the creation artistic images. It is the violation of the usual connections of words, giving them new shades of meaning, that underlies many classical images that have become textbook examples of epithets, metaphors, metonyms: gray winter threat (P.); The bell cries loudly, and laughs, and squeals (Vyaz.); Sometimes he falls passionately in love with his elegant sadness ... (L.); pot-bellied walnut bureau (G.); mental and moral neckline, bald syllogism (S.-Shch.).
Violation of lexical compatibility can become an effective means of creating a comic sound of speech in a humorous context: Since that day, glory has befallen Evstigneyka (M. G.);
Incompatibility makes headlines catchy: "A genre doomed to success" (about parody); "Memories of the Future" (movie title); "
Violation of lexical compatibility as a speech error
If the author does not strive to achieve a certain stylistic goal, the violation of lexical compatibility becomes speech error. “Although our favorite skaters lost in this competition, the audience gives them a standing ovation,”
Speech deficiency
A careless attitude to the language can cause speech insufficiency - an accidental omission of words necessary for an accurate expression of thought: The Directorate should strive to get rid of this indifference (missed to get rid of); As a result of speech insufficiency, the grammatical and logical connections of words in a sentence are violated, its meaning is obscured.
Often, as a result of the omission of a word, a substitution of the concept occurs. For example: Patients who have not visited an outpatient clinic for three years are laid out in the archive - we are talking about patient cards, and from the text it follows that "patients are handed over to the archive."
Speech redundancy
The ability to find the exact words for naming certain concepts helps to achieve brevity in the expression of thought, and, on the contrary, the author's stylistic helplessness often leads to verbal redundancy - verbosity. Verbosity as a great evil was repeatedly pointed out by scientists, writers A.P. Chekhov remarked: "Brevity is the sister of talent." A.M. Gorky wrote that laconism, as well as accuracy of presentation, are not easy for the writer: "... It is extremely difficult to find the exact words and put them in such a way that a lot is said to a few," so that the words are cramped, the thoughts are spacious "".
Sometimes the manifestation of verbal redundancy borders on the absurd: The corpse was dead and did not hide it. Stylists call such examples of verbosity lapalissiads.
Speech redundancy can take the form of pleonasm. Pleonasm (from Gr. pleonasmos - excess) is the use in speech of those close in meaning and therefore unnecessary words(the main essence, everyday routine, uselessly disappears, anticipate in advance, valuable treasures, dark darkness, etc.).
A variation of pleonasm is tautology (from Gr. tauto - the same thing, logos - a word). Tautology as a phenomenon of lexical stylistics can arise when repeating words with the same root (tell a story, multiply many times, ask a question, resume again), as well as when combining a foreign and Russian word that duplicates its meaning (memorable souvenirs, debuted for the first time, an unusual phenomenon that drives keynote). In the latter case, one sometimes speaks of a hidden tautology.
