Abstract unlike the plan, it is a detailed and detailed presentation of the material of the lecture (book), according to its internal logical structure. The abstract provides not only a list of questions and sub-questions that reveal the relationship between the ideas of the book, but also a consistent presentation of the material read with separate extracts and quotations, diagrams and tables, etc. Note-taking, to a greater extent than other forms of recording, contributes to a deep understanding and solid assimilation of the material , helps to develop the skills of correct presentation of thoughts in writing, contributes to the development of speech style.

Abstracts are conditionally divided into planned, textual, free, thematic.

Outline plan- a record in which each item of the plan corresponds certain part abstract, except in cases where additions and clarifications of the plan are not required. If you have the skill of note-taking, the outline plan is drawn up quickly enough. Even in the process of initial reading, it is short, simple and clear in form, which makes it an indispensable tool in preparing a report, speaking at a seminar. by the most simple view plan-outline is a question-answer summary in which the points of the plan, expressed in interrogative form, the synopsis gives accurate answers. A schematic plan-outline reflects the logical structure and the relationship of individual provisions of the source, most often in graphical form.

Textual abstract- this is a summary created mainly from fragments of the original (quotations), this is an excellent source of verbatim statements by the author, as well as the facts he cites. Textual extracts are connected with each other by a chain of logical transitions, they can be provided with a plan and include separate theses in the presentation of the outliner or the author.

free abstract combines extracts, quotations, sometimes theses; part of his text may be provided with a plan. A free abstract requires the ability to independently clearly and concisely formulate the main provisions, which requires a deep understanding of the material and good command writing. This is the most complete type of abstract. It contributes to a better assimilation of the material and the development of the reader's creative activity, without tying it to the author's formulations.

Thematic abstract gives a more or less exhaustive answer to the question (topic) posed, based on the use of a number of sources. Its specificity is that, while developing a certain topic, it may not fully reflect the content of each of the studied works. The thematic summary teaches you to work on a topic, thinking it over comprehensively, analyzing various points perspective on the same issue.

The total volume of the abstract should be 10–15 times less than the text being studied. This reduction is achieved through careful selection material, and as a result of a summary and economy of speech means (abbreviation of words and commonly used expressions).

The considered recording forms can be successfully used in the preparation of an oral presentation (report) at a seminar, writing a written work.

teacher at watch self-study is called upon to constantly strive to intensify communication with students by setting them up actual problems for their scientific analysis, to reveal the relationship theoretical issues with practice, with urgent tasks. As a result, there is an acceleration of the process of becoming a whole personality, the formation of its worldview and social position as a result of the student's daily actions, his actions and social behavior in general.

In the process of learning any knowledge and skills, we often have to write down new information so that we can later reproduce it again. Because it is difficult or even unnecessary to write everything down, it is important to be able to summarize the information received in the form of a summary. In this article, you will learn how to write notes correctly using the example of taking notes from history lessons. Here we will discuss such concepts as basic notes, speed notes, shorthand, the Cornell method, and other useful ways of presenting and visualizing information in a compact way.

What is an outline?

Word " abstract"came to us from the German language (der Konspekt); in German, it was borrowed from Latin (conspectus), in which it had the meanings "review, outline, appearance, appearance." In turn, this noun in Latin was formed by combining the prefix con- and the verb specio (look, look). Thus, the original meaning of the word “abstract” is a brief record or summary of something (it does not have to be a lecture or lesson abstract at all - there are abstracts of books and articles; in the natural sciences, verbal information, as a rule, is accompanied by visualized formulas and algorithms, which also need to be translated into graphic or textual information). In this sense, the word "abstract" is close to such concepts as "compendium" (a concise summary of the sum of the main provisions of any science) and "abstract" ( summary content of an article or book).

However, the synopsis is not just a literal transmission of the material perceived from an external source. It is also an act of creative comprehension of what has been heard and seen, the expression of one's own thoughts on paper, the moment of the formation of doubts and questions (Kodzhaspirova G.M., Kodzhaspirov A.Yu. Interdisciplinary Dictionary of Pedagogy. M., 2005. P. 136-137).

A "creative" abstract is not only copying thoughts from a book by an authoritative scientist or a teacher's lecture; it is always a reflection on the information, accompanied by the development by the author of the abstract of a complex, often understandable only to him, system of mnemonic signs (underlining; highlighting the text different colors; construction of tables and logical chains based on available information). From the methods of taking notes and presenting material in the form of abstracts, many new genres of scientific research were born - from comments on books Holy Scripture and legal codes from the time of the Roman emperors in the Middle Ages to the publication of courses of lectures by eminent university professors today (including posthumously, by the efforts of their students).

Differences between note-taking and shorthand

Many students often ask themselves the question: if both note-taking and shorthand can restore the original meaning of the material presented, what is their fundamental difference? Isn't the abstract a special case of a transcript made using not universal notation, but a system of signs unique to a particular person?

The answers to these questions are presented to us by the work of the St. Petersburg professor E.V. Minko (Methods and techniques of accelerated note-taking and reading: Educational and methodological manual. St. Petersburg, 2001. P. 20-25). First, as already mentioned, note-taking is purely individual characteristics individual person; often even his fellow students are not able to "decipher" the information contained in the abstract. Such a situation is unacceptable for a stenographer: when teaching this specialty, it is obligatory to memorize a certain set of universal symbols and signs. Secondly, the abstract should be easy to "read": a person should always have the opportunity to return to what has already been written and correct the subsequent text. This is what makes the Cornell note-taking method valuable, which we will discuss later. Thirdly, the summary of the lesson, lecture, visual information is not a copy of what he saw and heard, not a literal transmission of the text, but an arrangement of its meaning.

"Rational" (high-speed) note-taking

"The Cornell Method of Taking Notes"

This type of note-taking is called the Cornell note-taking system after the university where Professor Walter Poke, the author of this method, worked (Pauk W. How to study in College. Boston, 1962). It is rightfully considered one of the most common among students, it is equally well suited for taking notes in both the natural sciences and the humanities.

The most important distinguishing feature of this method is the division of the space of a vertically oriented sheet into three fields: two fields are divided solid line vertically (in a ratio of approximately 1:3); at the bottom of the page, you must leave an undivided space about 7 cm wide. The main part when taking notes is right part a sheet where the main thoughts stated by the lecturer / teacher are recorded during the lesson. Moreover, in the course of transferring verbal information to paper, it is important to consistently move from writing down the main idea to facts and examples that should explain it.

Immediately after the end of the lecture, you can start reflecting on the material displayed on the right side. To do this, you need to select and enter in the left field maximum amount words or short remarks - questions that will illustrate the main content of the lecture contained in the text from the right margin.

In the field at the bottom of the sheet, it is necessary to enter (after filling in the two fields above it) a detailed description of the main idea of ​​the entire lesson (i.e. its dominant, the language of foreign teachers - summaries), note its feature in comparison with other classes. This will allow later long time more vividly reproduce in memory the content of the lesson as a whole. In addition, it is useful to allocate 10-20 minutes a day to repeat the main facts and patterns that have been displayed in the class notes recently: this will eliminate their quick forgetting, analyze and resolve doubts that arise during the lesson itself.

Schematic plan

In part, the Cornell note resembles such a note-taking method as compiling schematic plan. However, the fundamental difference between the first type of material recording and the second is that in a schematic plan, questions are first written down, to which, in the course of studying the material, it is necessary to give a short (consisting of 2-3 logically connected sentences) answer. Thus, if we combine with each other the principles of filling out a schematic plan and the form for the Cornell abstract, then you can see that the schematic plan requires filling in the left field first, and then the right one (i.e. the filling order is opposite to the "Cornell method notes").

In such abstracts, which are written under dictation, the possession of the technique of high-speed writing and “folding” the material in writing acquires special importance. For example, many use for this a technique such as the exclusion of vowels and the replacement of some words with conventional signs. AT historical science conjunctions are especially often replaced, words meaning causal relationships, for example, “depends on ...”, “mutually depends” (→, ↔), “therefore” (=>), “A is the cause of B” (A → B) . Ligatures are also used, for example, NB (nota bene - Latin for “remember well”). Very often, colored felt-tip pens, pens, pencils are used to highlight especially important thoughts. Some students and even schoolchildren who know foreign languages ​​well can use abbreviated versions of foreign words (for example, def. from to defend instead of “protect”, “defend”; corr. from to correct instead of “correct”, “correct”). Some lessons and lectures, where the explanation of cause-and-effect relationships prevails over the event history (in particular, this applies to any topics explaining the structure and composition of government bodies, their functions), sometimes, when written, they take the form of a diagram with one or more key concepts in the center, from which there are branches to more particular terms or phenomena. An example is presented on rice. one.

Figure 1. An example of a Cornell abstract

Experience in the natural sciences. Reference abstract

The reference abstract as a method of memorizing and reflecting the material was developed in the 80s. last century Donetsk teacher of mathematics and physics V.F. Shatalov (see, for example, his books: Reference signals in physics for grade 6. Kyiv, 1978. 79 p.; Reference notes on kinematics and dynamics. From work experience. Book for a teacher. M., 1989. 142 p.; Geometry in Faces, Moscow, 2006, 23 p.). Nowadays, in the school lessons of the humanities cycle (especially in history lessons), the method of compiling supporting notes is becoming increasingly recognized. For example, the publication of reference notes for individual lessons and entire educational blocks in history and social science has recently intensified (Stepanishev A.T. Reference notes on the history of Russia. 6-11 grades. M., 2001. 128 p.). The popularity of this type of note-taking is explained quite simply: in part - unusual, even game form presentation of the material, partly due to poor memorability of individual events and dates. Thus, the reference summary is an attempt to analyze in the most figurative, visualized form the cause-and-effect relationships between various events, statements and deeds. historical figures. In addition, the material of the lessons in the supporting notes is represented by whole blocks of topics. If we keep in mind history and social science, here the thematic and temporal coverage of the material varies depending on its specifics (for example, in terms of coverage time - from several months to several centuries).

Each topic (block - topic) is encrypted in the reference abstract into a system of signs - supports that make up a mini - block. On the basis of these signs, often unified, an individual summary can be "deciphered" by other people. The optimal number of mini-blocks for the presentation of the whole block-topic is 8-10.

In addition, the system of reference notes allows the teacher to implement an individual approach to learning: in the case of the presence in the class of students of different educational levels compiling such notes allows you to regulate the pace of studying block - topics and individual subtopics, make the learning process more understandable and interesting, introduce an element of creativity into it (when students compile their system of signs - supports and entire supporting notes at home).

The main supports in such an abstract are symbolic - verbal (letters, syllables, signs of conjunction / disjunction, indicators of a logical connection: →, ↔, a sign of a cause-and-effect relationship - =>, similarities - ~, etc.), pictorial (pictographic) and conditionally graphic (fragments of plans, terrain diagrams with symbols) signs. An example of compiling a basic abstract on Russian history is presented at rice. 2. It remains to be added that the reference notes can be used as an effective means of checking the material covered (then the basis for it is written and drawn at home, and in a lesson or lecture, students reproduce from memory the schemes and logical chains learned at home and reinforce this material by re-drawing them on a piece of paper), and as a means of forming new knowledge, skills and abilities (i.e. when writing down a new topic or subtopic presented by the teacher).

Figure 2. Background summary of history. Subject: " East Slavs in the first half of the 1st millennium AD” (compiled by S.V. Selemenev.)

Abstracts as a form of self-preparation for a report at a conference or seminar

Outline plan:

This type of note-taking is no less widely used in modern pedagogy; especially often it concerns the disciplines of the humanitarian cycle. To draw up such a summary, it is necessary to carry out some preliminary preparation: it is necessary to write a lesson plan on several sheets before the lecture, special characters or numbers highlighting sections, questions and problems in the material presented. Each of these headings, during the recording process behind the lecturer, can be expanded and supplemented with coherent text illustrating general position. From the foregoing, it should be concluded that, ideally, the plan-summary should be as close as possible to the text that is voiced by the lecturer at the department; in the description of this note-taking method, one can find much in common with the Cornell method.

Nevertheless, the plan-summary, as experts in didactics and pedagogy note, has a great advantage over supporting and Cornell notes. Since all the headings of topics and individual sections, as well as a certain amount actual material are prepared in advance, it is possible to write them down without abbreviations and conventional signs. This increases the likelihood of correct and quick interpretation of the abstract by other students or students.

The latter circumstance is the reason why, when preparing for reports at school and seminars at the university, the shell of the plan - abstract is often used by speakers as the basis for their own report. First, in such a structure it is quite easy to do different kind notes. Secondly, it is enough to simply substitute the necessary quotations and references to sources in the text of the abstract, which is especially important in historical science. With the correct organization of the material, they will “stand” directly opposite the corresponding theses. Our example of the basis for the plan is a synopsis on the topic “The First World War 1914-1918.” we presented on rice. 3.

Figure 3. Shell plan - abstract

It is believed that students take notes more, better and more confidently than schoolchildren. However, if a high school student is ready to master the art of taking notes right now, nothing can stop him. On the contrary, the ability to organize your notes in the best way for yourself will help you better prepare for your studies at the university.

Cornell note-taking method The method got its name from Cornell University in the USA. We divide the page for the abstract into the main space and a rather large left margin. In the main space, you write the text of the lecture. And then, rereading what you wrote, in the left field, specifically note each idea, and also write out key words and important details. AT classic version method, the note field is 2.5 inches, that is, 6.35 cm. Then it is logical to assume that the entire sheet is A4. These notebooks can be found in stationery stores.

The left margin is also for your own lines. The more independent impressions from the educational text you are able to generate, the more space they need - therefore, it makes sense to fill in only one side of the sheet, and endow the other side with the functions of the same note field. Or write on both sides of the sheet, but deviate from the summary of each lesson with more cells or lines.

When repeating the material of such an outline, cover all the text on the right with a card, leaving only the markup of the left field visible, then remove the card and check if you have said everything.

Indent method

You are listening to a lecture - and suddenly you notice that the teacher clearly expresses his thoughts in the direction "from the general to the particular." Perfectly! On the left, write the main concept or main idea. And you write out the subordinate concepts on the right - and the more detailed or insignificant this or that detail of the educational material is, the farther from the left field it is. There is no need to label parts of the resulting structure in any other way.

This scheme is useful for repeating the main points. Although it is impossible to trace a simple chronology on it.

And if the lecturer was chattering, then you won’t be able to compose a synopsis using this method. If you yourself are not very experienced in compiling any kind of notes, then using this method will initially lead you to blots in the notes. It's OK. Practice. And, of course, you must be prepared to link fragmentary concepts together with the help of paraphrase.

Mapping method

Facts take shape - mapping presents us graphically with the content of the lecture. You become almost an artist with a lecturer - so this is a method for creative people; for those who have developed visual perception and visual memory. A critically thinking author of such an outline can easily edit notes by adding numbers and color coding. So, you get a chance to see exactly how you think. Choose this method if the content of the lecture is well organized or if you don't know the lecturer at all. (More details about the method are given in No. 5, 2009.)

And if you perceive information better by ear? Do not worry: the lecturer already helps you with his intonation.

Both the indentation method and the mapping method are an excellent cure for the consequences of preparing for the USE, which draws the attention of a high school student to the details of the course material and, alas, weans them from seeing its structure as a whole. The USE is useful only when you clearly see this structure and get the necessary element of knowledge from one or another “mental shelf”.

Table method

When you are supposed to be told the learning material “by year”, take a ruler and pencil with you and try to enter the contents of the lecture in the table. Think about how to title the columns. Most likely, these are the categories that should be explored. Write in cells key ideas, characteristic phrases, meaningful words. When repeating a topic, it will be easy to compare facts, and you will also get rid of the confusion that often accompanies the perception of chronologically presented new knowledge.

Phrase method

Each new thought is written on a separate line. Everyone new fact- too. Each new topic- needless to say. Everything listed is numbered in a row, and this means that with each line you become even smarter. Another thing is that it remains unclear how important each of the phrases is for understanding the whole topic and how phrases that are not located next to each other are related to each other. Nevertheless, the method is suitable when the topic is explained to you very quickly and nothing can be missed. But such a summary is subject to mandatory subsequent analysis and, possibly, alteration into something more digestible. And it is definitely not suitable if you are taking notes on, say, a thick university textbook.

And notes

Abstracts need to be re-read, otherwise they will come in handy only before practical exercises and exams, and after the session the material will be forgotten. The word synopsis in Latin means review. It turns out that we, by definition, write notes in order to subsequently review the educational material. To make it convenient for you to actively use the notes, do not be lazy to place interrogative and exclamation points and with the help of icons convenient for you, mark what information to check on your own, what to ask again, what to clarify, what to study in more detail, and where to give more examples.

What to train on

By the start of classes preparatory courses it is best to be able to outline. Where to learn it?

Everything is very simple: you can take notes on intellectual television and radio programs, since they are available. And the textbooks for preparing for the university should be considered for which method of note-taking they would be most suitable for, being read aloud. Outline the manual you like (or especially difficult to understand).

You can look for material for abstracts and outside the home. If your city has a museum, ask if the museum has a lecture hall on arts or science. Attend a series of lectures - and try to come out with perfectly organized information.

You can find out where lectures are still being held (or were held - and their content has already been posted on the Web), on recommendation Internet services. However, the reality is that on the World Wide Web as a whole most of laid out in Free access video lectures - in English. Until you know how to take notes in Russian-language lectures, it is too early to write down English-language ones. They should be listened to for another purpose - to get acquainted with the vocabulary according to your future specialty and develop listening skills.

"Methods of teaching psychology"

Introduction

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

As you know, there are three main goals of psychology as a discipline and activity of psychologists:

1. Search for new psychological knowledge.

2. Applying psychological knowledge to solve practical problems.

3. Transfer of psychological knowledge.

Scientific psychology is aimed at achieving the first goal, the second - applied and practical psychology, the third - the methodology of teaching psychology.

Scientific psychology as an independent science was formed in the second half of the 19th century. and during the twentieth century. has come a long way in development. It has become one of the recognized industries scientific knowledge; psychological departments and laboratories have taken their rightful place in university science many countries.

Practical psychology as a sphere of professional activity began to take shape in the 60s of the twentieth century. In the USA, in the 70s P. - in Europe, in the 80s. - in Soviet Union. Despite the difficulties of the initial development and assertion of its own status, it gradually became a recognized area of ​​professional activity. The strong position of psychological services in many areas of health and education is proof of this.

The methodology of teaching psychology in many countries is only in the initial period of its formation, despite the fact that the teaching of psychology itself has the same long history like psychology itself. Works on the methodology of teaching psychology were published throughout the 20th century, but they appeared quite rarely and concerned only certain aspects of this field of activity.

The periods when psychology was introduced as a subject in secondary educational institutions(at the beginning and in the middle of the twentieth century), were marked by the activation methodical work in the field of teaching psychology (Samarin, 1950; Panibrattseva, 1971).

Interest in psychology as a science and field practical activities clearly prevailed throughout the twentieth century, although most psychologists, willingly or not, had to work as teachers of psychology. At the same time, it was assumed that for the successful teaching of psychological disciplines, deep knowledge of scientific and applied psychology. However, lately everything large quantity specialists are aware of the fact that psychology as a subject and psychology as a science are not identical concepts. The course of psychology has its own didactic tasks, therefore, for successful teaching, only psychological knowledge is not enough, the ability to teach is also necessary.

Works devoted to the methodology of teaching psychology in higher educational institutions began to appear in our country and abroad only recently. In addition, special conferences or sections within the framework of other conferences are organized, dedicated to the methods of teaching psychology in different types of educational institutions. The interest of psychologists in teaching is growing.

The methodology of teaching psychology is being studied as compulsory subject students majoring in Psychology. Upon graduation, they are awarded the qualification “Psychologist. Psychology teacher. Thus, this training course important function preparing students for teaching activities. It is assumed that in accordance with the acquired knowledge, skills and abilities, a specialist should be ready to participate "in solving complex problems in the system National economy, education, healthcare, management, social assistance to the population. At the same time, he must be able to the following types professional activity:

diagnostic and corrective activities;

Expert and advisory;

Educational and educational;

Research;

Cultural and educational.

Consider the requirements for professional preparedness of a specialist in psychology (State Educational Standard..., 2000). The specialist must be able to solve tasks corresponding to his qualifications:

based on accumulated theoretical knowledge, research skills and information retrieval be able to navigate modern scientific concepts, correctly set and solve research and practical problems;

participate in practical applied activities, master the basic methods of psychodiagnostics, psychocorrection and psychological counseling;

· possess a complex of knowledge and methods of teaching psychology in higher educational institutions.

Thus, the qualification "psychologist, teacher of psychology" implies readiness for three types of psychological activity: scientific, practical and pedagogical.

1. Training of teachers of psychology

Domestic and international experience shows that the teaching of psychology is carried out by both psychologists and teachers. In the first case, the task of pedagogical training of psychologists becomes relevant, and in the second, the psychological training of teachers. Who can teach psychology better: a psychologist or a teacher? The obvious advantage of a psychologist lies in a deep knowledge of the subject, but he sometimes lacks pedagogical and methodological readiness for teaching. The teacher does not have such a deep knowledge of psychology as a psychologist, but he has an obvious advantage in terms of methodological preparedness, he knows how to select educational material competently and teach it to students. Thus, it is impossible to give an unambiguous answer to the above question “who is better...?~. Both psychologists and teachers have the right to teach psychology, but it is important that the psychologist be pedagogically educated, and the teacher - psychologically educated. Therefore, it is necessary to pay attention to the study by psychologists of pedagogical disciplines that are important for successful teaching. The widespread opinion that knowledge of the relevant scientific discipline is sufficient to teach it is far from always justified. In the case when psychology is taught by teachers of other subjects, it is necessary to improve their psychological qualifications.

Traditionally, in many countries, the following situation has developed: in higher educational institutions, psychology is taught by psychologists - scientists and practitioners, and in secondary educational institutions - teachers of philosophical or social disciplines. The reason for this situation was, apparently, the traditional idea of ​​the university as a scientific and pedagogical institution, and of the school, gymnasium, lyceum - as educational institution. Therefore, there is an opinion that for the university, first of all, scientific qualifications are important, and for the school - pedagogical qualifications.

In any case, specialists with the appropriate education and scientific and pedagogical qualifications are allowed to teach.

The teaching of psychology in higher educational institutions is carried out mainly by specialists with a basic psychological education and graduates who have a candidate or doctoral degree in psychology, as well as by practical psychologists with the highest professional qualifications. Employees occupying the following teaching positions directly participate in the learning process: dean of the faculty, head of the department, professor, associate professor, senior lecturer, lecturer, assistant. The procedure for filling positions of scientific and pedagogical workers in a higher educational institution of the Russian Federation is regulated by the relevant regulation (Regulation on the procedure for filling positions ..., 2003).

The positions of the teaching staff in a higher educational institution are filled on the basis of a competitive selection, as a result of which an employment contract (contract) is concluded with an employee for a period of up to 5 years. Discussion and competitive selection of applicants for teaching positions takes place at the academic council of the university, faculty, branch of the university. Candidates for teaching positions are preliminarily discussed at a meeting of the relevant department, and the recommendations of the department for each candidate are brought to the attention of the academic council of the university (faculty). The department has the right to offer applicants to read trial lectures or conduct other training sessions and, based on their results, adopt recommendations (Regulations on the procedure for filling positions ..., 2003).

Both in Russia and in other countries, the training of psychology teachers for higher educational institutions is carried out in the system of postgraduate vocational education. The system of this training is similar to training in other specialties and is carried out in the Russian Federation on the basis of the Regulations on the training of scientific, pedagogical and scientific personnel (Regulations on the training of scientific, pedagogical and scientific personnel in the system of postgraduate professional education in the Russian Federation, 1998) and the Model Regulations on educational institution higher professional education (2001, pp. 71-72).

In accordance with these documents, doctoral studies, postgraduate studies, adjuncture are the main forms of raising the level of education, scientific and pedagogical qualification. The competition is a form of work on dissertations of specialists attached to higher educational institutions or scientific institutions, organizations without enrollment in doctoral studies, postgraduate studies, postgraduate studies. The system of studying psychology according to these educational programs was described in the previous chapters. It should be noted, however, that these educational programs are mainly aimed at improving scientific qualifications (candidate's examinations in philosophy, foreign language and specialty, dissertation preparation). Assistant and associate professor practices, as well as the study of pedagogy and psychology courses of higher education (or higher education), introduced in some universities, are aimed at improving pedagogical qualifications. Assistant practice involves conducting practical and seminars by a graduate student with students of the university, and assistant professor practice is lecturing. Thus, the graduate student gains experience in teaching. Purposeful training in the methodology of teaching psychology is not usually carried out, although there is a need for this. Therefore, in a number of universities in postgraduate and postgraduate studies, the study of such disciplines as: 1) pedagogy of higher education and 2) psychology of higher education is organized. The main goal of the relevant courses is to prepare postgraduate students (adjuncts) for teaching activities at the university.

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The professional qualifications of scientific and pedagogical workers of universities are determined by the following criteria:

1) basic higher education;

2) a scientific degree of a candidate of sciences;

3) scientific degree of doctor of sciences;

4) academic title of associate professor;

5) academic title of professor;

6) scientific work reflected in quantity and quality scientific publications;

7) pedagogical work reflected in the quantity and quality of educational publications.

For teaching psychology in higher educational institutions, it is important to have a basic psychological education, which determines the content and level vocational training teacher. The degree of candidate or doctor of science determines the degree of scientific qualification of the teacher. They are assigned on the basis of the Regulations on the procedure for awarding academic degrees, approved by the Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation (Regulations ..., 2002).

The degree of candidate of psychological sciences is awarded to psychologists who have confirmed their scientific and pedagogical qualifications in the form of successfully passing candidate examinations in philosophy, a foreign language and a scientific specialty, as well as successfully defending a dissertation for the competition degree in this scientific field. The dissertation for the degree of candidate of sciences must be a scientific qualification work, which contains the solution of a problem that is essential for the relevant branch of knowledge.

The scientific degree of Doctor of Psychology is the highest scientific qualification. There is no specific training for this degree. The applicant must prepare and defend a dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Psychology in the relevant scientific specialty ( general psychology, personality psychology, educational psychology, etc.). This dissertation should be a scientific qualification work, in which, on the basis of the research performed by the author, theoretical provisions have been developed, the totality of which can be qualified as a new major scientific achievement, or a major scientific problem. A doctoral thesis usually reflects the broad research experience of a specialist in the study of some new direction in psychological science, received by the applicant personally (or as a leader of a research group). The award of a scientific degree is approved by the Higher Attestation Commission of the Russian Federation.

2. Knowledge, skills, abilities and personal qualities psychology teacher

The profession of a teacher of psychology has its own specifics, in contrast to the profession of a psychologist-scientist and psychologist-practitioner. The teacher should not only have psychological knowledge, but also be able to transfer it to students. From this point of view, the skills, personal qualities and abilities of a psychology teacher are akin to other teaching professions.

In order to be successful, a teacher must, to a certain extent, possess the following knowledge, skills and abilities:

1. Be versatile educated, erudite in various areas psychological knowledge, as well as in other sciences.

2. Know the subject well.

3. Be able to independently select educational material.

4. Determine the best means and effective methods learning.

5. Be able to explain the educational material in an accessible way to ensure its understanding and assimilation by students.

6. Be able to create motivation for students to master the educational material.

7. To be exacting to the knowledge and skills of students.

8. Possess communicative and organizational skills and pedagogical tact.

9. Be logical and have a good vocabulary.

10. Possess expressive means of communication, oratorical and artistic abilities.

11. Possess observation and the ability to understand the student.

12. Be able to reflect on their own teaching activities.

Of course, the deficit certain skills and qualities is not a contraindication for teaching. There are different individual styles teaching. For example, one teacher may have pronounced artistic and oratorical skills, the other - the ability to logical and systematic presentation of educational material. As in other types of professional psychological work, it is important for a psychologist to take into account the individual characteristics of his personality in teaching.

Knowledge of the subject. In higher education institutions, especially psychological faculties, the scientific competence of the teacher and his knowledge of the subject are traditionally valued. Teaching positions are considered as scientific and pedagogical. The course of study is usually taught by a senior lecturer, associate professor or professor who himself conducts research in this field. scientific field or conducts practical psychological work. This is a traditional practice in universities in many countries. Unfortunately, in Russia, in the conditions of the current “market education”, many teachers, due to meager salaries, are forced to earn extra money by giving courses and special courses in which they understand little. They have to turn into "coven parrots" who retell hastily read textbooks and books and do not even have time to delve into certain problems (Pryazhnikov, Pryazhnikova, 2001, p. 286). The decline in the scientific level of teaching is a serious problem in higher psychological education. Nevertheless, psychologists who are specialists in their field are still respected by students as teachers. It should be noted that pedagogical skills and abilities also significantly increase the effectiveness of their teaching activities.

In secondary schools, more importance is attached to methodological skills. Teaching positions are considered primarily as teaching positions. As the review in the previous sections shows, psychology in schools is taught by psychologists or teachers from other disciplines. Of course, the knowledge of a psychologist is more profound, but the lack of pedagogical skills sometimes prevents him from correctly selecting educational material, clearly and easily explaining it. Teachers of other subjects may not have a deep understanding of psychology, but they are able to select the necessary material from available sources and teach it to students, making the learning process fun and accessible. The task of psychologists is to raise the level psychological competence psychology teachers.

Intelligence. Intellectual qualities are great value not only for the scientist, but also for the teacher. An intelligent person is one of the characteristics most frequently mentioned by students when they evaluate a teacher they respect. Very remarkable is the statement of V. N. Druzhinin: “No successful psychologist without high intelligence» (2001, p. 33). In context, this statement could sound like this: "Without high intelligence, there can be no successful teacher of psychology."

In order to clearly explain the educational material to students, the teacher must first of all clearly understand it himself. It is with regard to the teacher that the winged truth is especially true: "He who thinks clearly - he clearly states."

The vagueness of the teacher's thoughts leads to the vagueness of his speech and, as a result, to misunderstanding on the part of students. Those teachers who try to hide the poverty of thought behind pseudo-scientific and beautiful formulations of indefinite content are doing wrong.

Artistic and oratory skills. Teachers are often expected to provide "interesting" and even "artistic" presentation of course material. A small impromptu survey of several groups of psychology students showed that "the most important quality"In psychology teachers, many students consider "wit and cheerful disposition." Perhaps this is due to the fact that the majority of psychology students are girls ... (Pryazhnikov, Pryazhnikova, 2001, p. 287). But here is what S. I. Gessen wrote about this: “ Oratory The professor's personality lies not in the ease and polished style of his speech, but in his ability to think while speaking, to discover new evidence and shades of the thought he develops at the lecture. Therefore, the external roughness of speech, in so far as it is an expression of the struggle of thought with the word, often constitutes a genuine charm. scientific speech… Of course, some minimum means of expression necessary for a teacher of a scientific course ..».

G. Selye expressed similar thoughts: “It is characteristic that the immoderate beauty of speech is a disadvantage scientific lecture because it diverts the attention of listeners from the essence of what is being explained.

At the same time, it is impossible to deny the fact of the influence of the characteristics of the teacher's speech on the effectiveness of training, as we have already mentioned above. The ability to put logical stresses, make the necessary and appropriate pauses, clear and precise diction are important for pedagogical activity. Such shortcomings of the teacher's speech as too high speed of presentation, nasality, lisp, negligence in pronunciation contribute to the formation of a dismissive and sometimes negative attitude of students. However, these shortcomings can be corrected through systematic exercises.

Pedagogical settings. Pedagogical attitude is understood as the readiness of the teacher to react in a certain way in the same type of pedagogical situation. To the teacher himself, his own attitudes in most cases seem to be absolutely correct, therefore they are extremely stable and difficult to change. Conservatism and rigidity of attitudes increases with age. There are two types of dominant attitudes of teachers towards students: positive and negative.

The presence of a teacher’s negative attitude towards a particular student is usually indicated by the following signs:

The teacher gives the “bad” student less time to answer than the “good” one;

the teacher does not ask leading questions and does not give hints;

In case of an incorrect answer, he hurries to redirect the question to another student or gives the correct answer himself;

More often blames and less encourages a "bad" student than a "good" one;

Tries not to notice the success of such a student;

Sometimes he does not work with him at all in class.

The presence of a positive attitude of the teacher in relation to a particular student is evidenced by the following signs:

The teacher waits longer for an answer to the question;

If it is difficult to answer, he asks leading questions, makes hints;

Encourages with a smile or a look;

If the answer is wrong, he does not rush to evaluate, but tries to correct it;

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more often turns to such a student with a glance in class.

By showing his attitude towards "good" and "bad" students, the teacher, without special intention, has a strong influence on students.

The kindness and respect of the teacher towards students. Theoretically, all teachers understand the need to show kindness and respect to students. However, the manifestations of kindness and respect can be different. They can turn into an imitation of kindness, into "flirting" with students, into attempts by a psychology teacher to simplify his mission. Such a teacher becomes:

either a "reteller" of textbooks,

either turns into a "charming artist" or "merry comedian",

· or generally degenerates into a "smug goon", confident in his "strong knowledge" and "intellectual infallibility".

Kindness and respect can also turn into pity for the student, as a result of which the level of exactingness decreases. The ability to understand the student, "to enter into his position" is very important. However, such kindness, carried to the point of absurdity, deprives some students of any incentive to study. In this case, the teacher pretends to teach, and the students pretend to teach. But there is no real learning.

The other extreme is represented by those teachers who see in their position an opportunity for self-affirmation by demonstrating their superiority over students. This can be manifested in the emphasized directiveness and demonstrative behavior of the teacher, his lack of desire to enter into a dialogue or discussion with students. Such teachers do not show respect for the students' own opinion, believing that only their point of view is correct. They do not admit their own mistakes.

The optimal type of teacher-student relationship can be expressed by the well-known pedagogical principle, which A.S. Makarenko formulated as follows: "Maximum requirements for the individual and maximum respect for her." At the same time, it is natural to believe that the level of exactingness should be optimal, that is, it should be combined with the real possibilities of students. In this regard, the position of the teacher does not seem quite legitimate when he declares: “but this does not concern me” (for example, when the library has one copy of the book, and two student groups must prepare for the lesson in a few days). When making demands, the teacher must take into account the reality of the learning situation.

Respect for the student is manifested in the fact that the teacher treats him as an equal participant educational process:

He is given the right to choose (within certain limits);

He is given the right to speak (not necessarily here and now);

His opinion is valued (not necessarily accepted as correct).

The attitude of the teacher to criticism from students. In the learning process, situations are possible in which the student believes that the teacher is wrong in his statements in the classroom. Firstly, a university teacher has the right to his own point of view, even if this point of view does not coincide with the opinion of some of his psychologist colleagues. Secondly, a student can also have his own scientific and ideological position. The correct behavior of the teacher may lie in the fact that he must give the student who disagrees with him the opportunity to at least briefly indicate his point of view or to state a different position of the student in front of the audience. It is better to do this either during a break, or at a seminar (then it will be possible to compare and discuss different positions), or at another lesson, having previously prepared to answer the student's comments.

Far from the best option is the “instant”, and even “witty” reaction of the teacher, which does not allow a better understanding of the problem, but only provides an opportunity to demonstrate their “artistic” abilities and makes the student an object of ridicule.

Situations are quite possible when a student understands some issues better than his teacher. Therefore, discussions are a completely natural and mutually beneficial process. A scientific dispute, in contrast to the dispute of the ignorant, should take place only on the basis of logically built and verified arguments, as well as on the basis of mutual respect of the disputants.

Personal relationship between teacher and students. It is quite natural for a teacher to have personal sympathies or dislikes towards some students. The reasons for this can be very different: both appearance and behavior, as well as personal qualities. However, the explicit manifestation of this relationship is inappropriate. Do not mix business (educational) and personal relationships. It is not pedagogical to demonstrate a dismissive and disrespectful attitude towards a student who is not liked by the teacher for some personal reason. A nice student should not be entitled to privileges. It is important that personal relationships do not interfere objective assessment. Some students, and especially female students, sometimes try to influence the teacher with personal charm.

A special issue is the problem of intimate relations between the teacher and students. Are they allowed? On the one hand, both teachers and students are adults, so they have the right to decide these issues themselves. On the other hand, everything that happens between teachers and students is closely monitored by public opinion". Therefore, a teacher who enters into intimate relationships with students must always remember this, remember his, above all moral, responsibility. But since, as they say, “you can’t command your heart,” you should at least not expose these relationships for show.

The style of pedagogical communication between the teacher and students. The teacher in the process of his pedagogical activity usually develops a certain set of relatively stable techniques and methods of interaction with students. It is called the style of pedagogical communication. Traditionally, there are three main styles: authoritarian, democratic and liberal. Authoritarian and liberal styles represent a kind of extreme in the use of a number of pedagogical means. A teacher who adheres to a democratic style, in many respects, takes a more flexible position.

It is typical for a teacher with an authoritarian style of communication that he takes an active and directive position, leaving students the role of passive performers in educational process. Clarity of instructions and assignments, timely control of their implementation are good organizing factors for students' learning activities. However, the need for certain tasks within the framework of the general goals of educational activity is often insufficiently substantiated. The positive value of such qualities as awareness, independence and initiative is underestimated. A student for such a teacher is not a subject of learning, but only an object of learning.

Students are presented high level requirements, but the teacher often lacks respect for their personality. The teacher is not inclined to display an individual approach. It comes from an average idea of ​​a student and abstract requirements for him.

An authoritarian teacher is conservative and subjective in relation to students. He prefers to characterize his students as undisciplined, lazy, irresponsible; disciplinary influences and marks considers the most important factors organization of training tasks; prefers to underestimate a student than to overestimate.

He is uncritical in relation to his pedagogical activity and does not know how to admit his mistakes.

It is typical for a teacher with a democratic style of communication that, while showing activity and initiative, he at the same time gives students the opportunity to show their own activity in the educational process. He formulates educational tasks clearly, while leaving freedom for the manifestation of creative initiative. Such a teacher argues the meaning individual tasks within the framework of the overall objectives of the training course. In the organisation training sessions he relies on personal experience students, the specifics of their needs and opportunities. A student for him is not only an object of learning, but a subject of learning activity.

Demanding to students is combined with respect for their personality and individuality. At the same time, equal general requirements for all students remain.

This teacher is objective in assessing students, does not demonstrate stereotypical negative attitudes. At the same time, he prefers to overestimate the student, rather than underestimate. The emphasis is on the organization of meaningful and expedient educational activities, and not on disciplinary influences and marks.

He is capable of objective criticism own activities, knows how to admit mistakes and correct them, without losing his own dignity.

For a teacher with a liberal style of communication, it is characteristic that he takes a rather passive and conniving position in the organization of training sessions, is not demanding enough. In such a situation, students show dominant activity and subjective qualities. In the classroom, there is often a lack of organizing function of the teacher. As a result, there is anarchy in the organization of training sessions, the formulation and implementation of requirements. Such a teacher does not attach importance to the rationale for the need to perform certain tasks or shows insufficiently appropriate arguments. Undemanding to students is sometimes replaced by rigid demands. This creates uncertainty in student expectations.

A liberal teacher is characterized by situationalness and inconsistency in student assessments, often there is bias and unjustified optimism. Ideas about a particular student are illusory. Inclined to take into account the individuality of the student and understand his special circumstances and, accordingly, excessively reduce the demands on him. Does not seek to discipline students. Often he fails to organize a meaningful and expedient learning activities.

Manifestations of self-criticism are situational; admits his mistakes, but usually does not correct them.

A specific teacher can hardly be unambiguously assigned to any one of the listed types, although the dominance of one of the styles may take place. At the same time, the same teacher in different pedagogical situations and in relation to different students can show elements of different styles. Reflection own style is a necessary condition for its improvement.

It is rather difficult to say unequivocally which of the considered styles is optimal. Teachers who are passionate about humanistic psychology, sometimes inclined to a liberal style of communication. The least compatible with the teaching of psychology, perhaps, authoritarian style. The democratic style of communication is usually positively evaluated, and rightly so. In many learning situations, to solve many learning objectives it is the most appropriate. However, the preference for one or another style depends on many factors, for example:

From the age of pupils and students;

From the type of educational institution;

From the features of this class;

From the characteristics of the learning situation.

Therefore, flexibility in the organization of pedagogical communication is perhaps an important characteristic of the teacher's pedagogical skills.

Conclusion

By virtue of vocation or out of necessity, modern psychologists quite often engage in teaching activities, regardless of whether they work in a higher or secondary educational institution, in a scientific institution, or in a practical psychological assistance service.

At present, the possibilities of teaching psychology have significantly expanded. This is due to the fact that in the last ten years there has been a significant expansion of the scale of psychological education both in Russia and abroad.

Psychology is taught in various types of educational institutions and is part of various educational programs:

1. At the psychological faculties of universities and other higher educational institutions that train psychologists.

2. On philosophical, pedagogical, law faculties universities, at the faculties of social work, as well as in specialized universities, in particular pedagogical, medical, technical, military, which train specialists who professionally work with people.

3. In secondary vocational schools, in particular, such as pedagogical, medical schools and colleges.

4. In secondary general educational institutions.

Psychologists working in scientific institutions, often combined Scientific research with teaching activities. Therefore, it is no coincidence that for many decades there have been enough set expression- scientific and pedagogical activity. Psychologists working in the service practical psychology education, very often receive requests for talks or lectures for parents, teachers, students on various psychological topics. Psychologists working in industrial or commercial organizations are asked to conduct training seminars on the psychology of work and the personality of the employee, business relations in the team, as well as on various psychological aspects commercial relations.

The methodology of teaching psychology as a branch of scientific knowledge is now at the initial stage of its development. Related to this is the lack of empirical data on many issues. The authors of publications on the methodology of teaching psychology rely heavily on their own personal teaching experience and the experience of their colleagues. There are very few generalizing works.

Bibliography

Karandashev V.N. Methods of teaching psychology: Textbook. St. Petersburg: Peter, 2007.

Leontiev A.A. pedagogical communication. - M., 1996.

Guidelines for the study of psychological disciplines / ed. Gonezo M.V. - M., 1991.

Talyzina N.F. Pedagogical psychology. - M., 1998.

". These methods are important because they lay down the basic principles of working with text. But the linear transmission of information, linear records do not reflect the features of information processing by our brain.

Mind cards

As writes Tony Buzan in the book " Superthinking» 95% of the world's population (according to studies conducted by him and colleagues) use a narrative style when taking notes, i.e. presented in the form of a connected story, consisting of paragraphs and subparagraphs.

They use a linear notation and a hierarchical sequence (points / sub-points).

The abstract is written using letters and numbers. Almost no colors are used, everything is written in one color.

Such a linear structure of the abstract focuses on consistency, but not on the presentation of the essence of the issue.

This presentation structure does not use the capabilities of the brain, such as:

— in visual images,

— graphic representation information,

— spatial orientation,

associations and gestalt.

According to T. Buzan, with such note-taking, the brain “ falls asleep ", He's bored. If we take into account that only half of the brain's capabilities are used in this case (see above), then training becomes ineffective. The left and right hemispheres do not interact with each other.

What are the other disadvantages of linear note-taking, notes T. Buzan.

1. Loss keywords .

Visually, keywords are simply lost in the mass of less important words. As a result, the necessary associations connecting key concepts are not formed.

2. Difficulty remembering information.

When bored, there are no emotions and only a monotonous text - the brain loses its sharpness of perception and does not remember well.

3. Loss a large number time.

Linear note-taking records a lot of unnecessary information. And then time is wasted reading it. Time is also lost searching for important key concepts.

4. Not stimulated creative possibilities brain.

Associations are not formed, which means that there is no creative approach to processing and memorizing information. And here it should be said about radiant thinking.

Radiant Thinking

Radiant Thinking It's the way the brain works. This concept expresses the processes taking place in the brain, and they indicate that the process of thinking is carried out in images or keywords.

Linearity, monotony, monochromaticity are by nature alien to our thinking.

Any information entering the brain (word, memory, sensation or thought) can be represented as central image, from which it diverges great multitude images - associations. Each association has an infinite number of links to other associations. The totality of these associations is called our memory.

Radiant Thinking- this is a process of thinking, in which there is a certain object in the center, which gives impetus to the birth of many associations, which become the central image but for another associative process.

Graphic display of the process of radiant thinking on paper or electronic media is carried out using mind maps.

Mind mapping(mindmap, mental maps, mind maps) - a concept introduced by T. Buzan. It's comfortable and efficient technique visualization of thinking and a variant of alternative notation.

mind map is a tool with which we can apply the principles of radiant thinking to our Everyday life. The mind map awakens in a person the ability to create images, which in turn develops the ability to think, develops memory and creativity.

Here are some Mind examples map:

Various programs for compiling mind maps on a computer are widely used. The advantage of filling in mind maps on a computer is that this map can be edited, deleted and new lines and images added.

You can also see such voluminous mind maps.

General principle of construction:

1. The main idea is highlighted and placed in the center of the sheet.

2. Branches of the first level depart from it, on which key concepts are written that reveal the central idea.

3. Branches of the 2nd level depart from them, revealing the ideas written on the branches of the 1st level.

4. Where possible, words are replaced with pictures and symbols and graphics are added.

5. Different colors are used to draw the mind map.

But I still note that such maps are compiled for themselves. Only you can highlight important keywords and create your own associative links. Therefore, to be honest, I do not recognize the use of other people's mind maps. Just for initial information.

Idea Mapping

A variation of T. Buzan's Mind Map is Idea map , a description of the work with which is contained in the book J. Nast "Visualization effect».

As the author writes, “I sought to find a creative tool that would stimulate right hemisphere my brain. The ability of idea maps to combine the possibilities of the right and left hemispheres has led to progress in almost everything that I did.

There are two ways to create associations. All ideas come from and are associated with the central thought. This method is flower associations .

The second method is association flow . Associations begin with one thought, which leads to another, which in turn leads to the next. It's like a stream of consciousness.

Idea mapping combines both of these ways of thinking. Idea maps have a structure consisting of rays ("10 o'clock"), in which ideas are located away from the center.

Most important ideas- in the central image, less important - in the main branches. Details are in the smallest branches. The order of the branches corresponds to the course of the hour hand. Mapping starts in the center.

The center image represents the subject or theme of your idea map. It should consist of at least three colors to be visually memorable. The main branches are adjacent to the central image. They designate areas of the main subject. The ideal number of main branches is five to nine for each idea card.

If the idea map has an order of presentation of information, read it clockwise, starting with the main branch, which is located at the 1 o'clock position.

Idea mapping can be used not only for taking notes, but for solving most problems. In the center - the problem, from it options for solutions. Clear and simple. And most importantly, effectively.

Reference signal method according to Shatalov

Viktor Fedorovich Shatalov is a Russian and Ukrainian teacher-innovator. People's teacher of the USSR.

Developed a learning system using reference signals - interrelated keywords, conventional signs, drawings and formulas with a brief conclusion.

His methodology is based on the natural laws of assimilation of information.

According to Shatalov, the material is given all at once, in its entirety. As an example: at the first lesson, the teacher tells the course in full. Of course, none of the students will remember everything at once. But then work begins with reference notes - diagrams that reflect the main content of the course. Reference signals are the basis that determines the method of V.F. Shatalov and distinguishes it from other methods.

When creating a reference diagram, all unnecessary words, only the logically substantiated essence remains. At home, students should draw and memorize this summary. At the next lesson, they repeat it, ask questions, and the teacher explains everything. This is how the whole course is mastered.

Shatalov offers a presentation of the material in large blocks, where you can not only comprehend each part, but also feel the relationship between different topics.

By the way, specialized literature should be read in a similar way. Immediately from beginning to end, in order to understand and feel all the content and relationships for subsequent detailing and deeper study of the material.

Logical-graphic structuring

And the last kind of records - logical-graphic structuring or logical-graphic schemes.

This method is described in detail in the book A. Egides “Labyrinths of thinking».

Arkady Petrovich Egides - Doctor of Psychology.

Logical-graphic structuring is a tool for productive creative thinking, when information is presented in a logical-graphic form. Those. texts are converted into diagrams. This makes it easier to understand and remember.

The main concepts are highlighted in the form of ovals. The oval stands out from the background, rectangles are not always applicable, because if there are a lot of them, then selection is difficult. A concept highlighted in an oval, and if still highlighted in color, allows you to see it immediately.

The question may arise - why waste effort on replacing text with logical-graphic diagrams. But otherwise, all this will have to be imagined in the mind..

For an outsider, all these pictures are cumbersome and confusing. For the one who built - all this as a whole.

How to build:

1. Write out meaningful concepts.

2. We decide how they relate to each other.

3. We get simple schemes.

4. Then we add new parts and compose already complex scheme. It is possible right away.

5. Relationships are established with the entire set of concepts.

Why is remembered ?

During structuring, activities are carried out to redesign, transform the material.

Material passes through the senses, articulation apparatus, brain structures, arm muscles. All types of memory are involved. All this helps to comprehend and understand the content.

But it is not necessary to structure an artistic or journalistic text. This is for scientific and educational texts.

I hope I was able to interest you in learning more about these methods. The books I have indicated, and the use in practice will be gradually introduced in subsequent articles.

There will be questions, please write in the comments.

Sincerely, Nikolay Medvedev.