The scientific and technological revolution (STR) is a concept used to refer to those qualitative transformations that took place in science and technology in the second half of the 20th century. The beginning of the scientific and technological revolution dates back to the mid-1940s. 20th century In the course of it, the process of turning science into a direct productive force is completed. Scientific and technological revolution changes the conditions, nature and content of labor, the structure of productive forces, the social division of labor, the sectoral and professional structure of society, leads to a rapid increase in labor productivity, affects all aspects of society, including culture, life, people's psychology, the relationship of society with nature .

The scientific and technological revolution is a long process that has two main prerequisites - scientific and technological and social. The most important role in the preparation of the scientific and technological revolution was played by the successes of natural science in late XIX- at the beginning of the 20th century, as a result of which there was a radical change in the views on matter and a new picture peace. The electron, the phenomenon of radioactivity, X-rays were discovered, the theory of relativity was created and quantum theory. Science has made a breakthrough into the microworld and high speeds.

The last three decades of the 20th century were marked by new radical scientific achievements. These achievements can be characterized as the fourth global scientific revolution during which post-non-classical science was formed. Replacing the former non-classical science of the first half of the 20th century, this recent period in the development of natural science, which forms the natural-science component of the second stage of the scientific and technological revolution, is characterized by a number of features.

First, it is the orientation of post-nonclassical science to the study of very complex, historically developing systems (among them special place occupied by natural complexes, in which man himself is included as a component). Ideas about the evolution of such systems are introduced into the picture physical reality through the latest ideas of modern cosmology (the concept of " big bang”, etc.), through the study of “human-sized complexes” (objects of ecology, including the biosphere as a whole, “man-machine” systems in the form of complex information complexes, etc.), and, finally, through the development of ideas of thermodynamic non-equilibrium processes, leading to synergies.

Secondly, important direction studies of post-non-classical science are the objects of biotechnology, and in the first place, genetic engineering. The successes of the latter at the turn of the XX - XXI centuries. determined by the latest achievements in biology - in terms of deciphering the human genome, posing and solving the problems of cloning higher mammals (these problems, we note, include not only natural science, but also social and ethical aspects).

Thirdly, post-non-classical science is characterized by a new level of integration of scientific research, which is expressed in complex research programs, the implementation of which requires the participation of specialists various areas knowledge.

The fundamental feature of the structure scientific activity is the division of science into relatively separate disciplines. This has its positive side, because it will make it possible to study in detail individual fragments of reality, but at the same time the connection between them is overlooked, and in nature everything is interconnected and interdependent. The disunity of the sciences is especially hampering now, when the need for complex integrative studies of the environment has become clear. Nature is one. The science that studies all the phenomena of nature should also be unified.

Another fundamental feature of science is the desire to abstract from man, to become as impersonal as possible. This once positive feature of science makes it now inadequate to reality and responsible for environmental difficulties, since man is the most powerful factor in changing reality.

In addition to the above, one can add the reproach that science and technology contribute to social oppression, in connection with this there are calls for the separation of science from the state.

The paradoxes of the development of science include the fact that science, on the one hand, communicates objective information about the world and at the same time destroys it (during various experiments) or something is destroyed on the basis of scientific information(species of life, non-reproducible resources).

But most importantly, science is losing hope of making people happy and giving them the truth. Science not only studies the development of the world, but is itself a process, factor and result of evolution, while it must be in harmony with the evolution of the world. There should be a contour feedback between science and other aspects of life, which would regulate the development of science. The increase in the diversity of science should be accompanied by integration and the growth of orderliness, and this is called the formation of science to the level of an integral integrative-diverse harmonious system.

In the modern worldview, two orientations have been formed in relation to science and the scientific and technological revolution:

The first orientation, which was called scientism (from Latin scientia - science). It is in our time, when the role of science is truly enormous, that scientism appeared, associated with the idea of ​​science, especially natural science, as the highest, if not absolute value. This scientific ideology stated that only science can solve all the problems facing humanity, including immortality. Within the framework of scientism, science is seen as the only sphere of spiritual culture in the future that will absorb its non-rational areas.

In contrast to this direction, it also loudly declared itself in the second half of the 20th century. anti-scientism, which dooms science either to extinction or to eternal opposition to nature. Anti-scientism proceeds from the position on the fundamental limitation of the possibilities of science in solving fundamental human problems, and in its manifestations it evaluates science as a force hostile to man, denying it a positive impact on culture. She argues that although science improves the well-being of the population, it also increases the danger of the death of mankind and the Earth from nuclear weapons and pollution. natural environment.

Processes taking place in modern science

The development of science is characterized by the dialectical interaction of two opposite processes - differentiation (separation of new scientific disciplines) and integration (synthesis of knowledge, unification of a number of sciences - most often into disciplines that are at their "junction"). At some stages of the development of science, differentiation prevails (especially during the period of the emergence of science as a whole and individual sciences), at others - their integration, this is typical of modern science.

Process of differentiation

Those. budding sciences, the transformation of individual "rudiments" scientific knowledge into independent (private) sciences and the intrascientific "branching" of the latter into scientific disciplines began already at the turn of the 16th and 17th centuries. During this period, previously unified knowledge (philosophy) splits into two main "trunks" - philosophy proper and science as complete system knowledge, spiritual education and social institution. In turn, philosophy begins to be divided into a number of philosophical sciences (ontology, epistemology, ethics, dialectics, etc.), science as a whole is divided into separate private sciences (and within them - into scientific disciplines), among which the classical (Newtonian) becomes the leader. ) mechanics, closely related to mathematics since its inception.

In the subsequent period, the process of differentiation of sciences continued to intensify. It was caused both by the needs of social production and by the internal needs of the development of scientific knowledge. The result of this process was the emergence and rapid development boundary, "butt" sciences (biochemistry, biophysics, chemical physics etc.).
The differentiation of sciences is a natural consequence of the rapid increase and complication of knowledge. It inevitably leads to specialization and division of scientific labor. The latter have both positive aspects(the possibility of in-depth study of phenomena, increasing the productivity of scientists), and negative (especially "loss of connection of the whole", narrowing of horizons - sometimes to "professional cretinism").

Integration process

Simultaneously with the process of differentiation, there is also a process of integration - unification, interpenetration, synthesis of sciences and scientific disciplines, their unification (and their methods) into a single whole. This is especially typical for modern science, where such synthetic, general scientific areas of scientific knowledge as cybernetics, synergetics (one of the leading areas of modern science, representing the natural scientific vector of the development of the theory of nonlinear dynamics in contemporary culture), etc., such integrative pictures of the world as natural-science, general scientific, philosophical are built (because philosophy also performs an integrative function in scientific knowledge).
The integration of the sciences convincingly and with increasing force proves the unity of nature. That is why it is possible, that objectively there is such a unity.

AT modern science the unification of sciences for the solution of large problems and global problems put forward by practical needs. So, for example, the solution of a very urgent environmental problem today is impossible without close interaction between the natural and human sciences, without a synthesis of the ideas and methods developed by them. Thus, the development of science is a dialectical (most general patterns formation and development of nature, society, human thinking:

1) unity and struggle of opposites;

2) the transition of quantitative changes to qualitative ones;

3) negation of negation.

4) the process in which differentiation is accompanied by integration, there is an interpenetration and integration into a single whole of the most various directions scientific knowledge of the world, the interaction of various methods and ideas.



Geography is a way of knowing the world around us. Primitive, in order to survive, he had to be well oriented in the world around him: first of all, know it well (for example, where are hunting grounds where there are edible plants, etc.) and be able to use this knowledge. Already in the Stone Age, predecessors are being created modern maps- drawings on the walls of cave dwellings (see the article ""), schematically showing the territory surrounding a person's dwelling.

Geography as a science

In fact, geography as a science begins with “travel literature”: getting into other, unfamiliar places, a smart observer recorded everything unusual for himself: how the people of this country look, what they wear, what kind of political system, what plants and animals are in this country and much more. These were the beginnings of country studies, when the country as a whole is described, “from geology to ideology”, and exactly what distinguishes this country from everyone else.

The famous Russian geographer Nikolai Baransky formulated this feature of science as follows: "What is everywhere (as), in geography should not be anywhere." In other words, it is not necessary to write that in a given country there is air, soil, vegetation - it is everywhere; it is necessary to pay attention to how the air of this country (for example, its climate) is unique, how it differs from neighboring countries.

Starting with country studies, geography developed further along the line of in-depth study of individual components of nature, more precisely, earthly shells: (sciences such as climatology and meteorology began to study it), hydrospheres (land hydrology and oceanology), (geomorphology - the science of relief), biospheres (biogeography), pedospheres (soil geography). But in general, the interaction of various components of nature in each particular area is studied by landscape science. It went the same way in-depth study individual aspects of the life of society: the economy as a whole was studied by economic geography, its individual branches - by the relevant sciences: geography of industry, Agriculture, trade and so on; people's lives - population geography; political life- political geography.

But this study of the territory "by sections" did not give a consolidated picture of each country or area. Regarding the situation when the territory is described only “by industry”, Baransky said: imagine that the writer decided to portray the characters of his novel as follows: first he described what each of them was wearing, then what they were all wearing, then what physique, what hair color each one has, then character traits, and so on. As a result, everything seems to be described, but there is no holistic view of each person. Therefore, after the “component-by-component” characteristics of the territory, it is necessary to give the characteristics “by region”.

"Geography" - in literal translation- "earth description", which is still its main task. But the natural course of development of each science is the following: description - explanation - prediction - control. The sciences that study inanimate nature passed through these stages most quickly. The open laws of mechanics, for example, make it possible to successfully control motion; knowledge of the laws of physics allows you to create new materials and so on. In dealing with more complex objects, the problems of controlling biological processes have only recently begun to be solved.

Object of study of geography

The object of study of geography - the earth's surface with all its natural and social content - is even more complex and, most importantly, heterogeneous: physical processes take place here (for example, the cycle in nature), chemical (migration of various in the earth's crust), biological (development of plant communities), economic (functioning National economy), demographic (), social (interaction of various social groups and others), political (struggle for power between different parties and movements), socio-psychological (formation public opinion, different attitude people to the processes taking place in society) and many others (including those that we do not yet know).

In any part of the territory - in every village, city, district - all these processes intertwine, interact (often in the most unexpected way) and together create their own unique picture of the "life of the territory" - more precisely, the life of society in the specific conditions of this territory.

The task of geography

The task of geography is to reveal the specifics of the interaction of all these heterogeneous processes in each territory, to summarize the available materials and create a vivid, memorable image of the place - that is, to solve the problem of describing the territory first (and partially - explaining the processes taking place on it).

Much more difficult task geographic forecast: what future (or what options for the future) is possible for this territory. Often we have to limit ourselves to identifying restrictions for development: for example, in such and such an area it is impossible to build enterprises even with small emissions harmful substances, since their dispersion in the atmosphere is extremely slow; or else: it is not worth creating a recreation zone here (from the Latin “recreatio” - literally “recovery” of human strength and health), since it is far from the place of residence of potential vacationers.

An even more difficult task of managing geographic features. Is it possible, for example, to restrain the growth major cities? Or - to populate the empty rural areas? Society (including Russian society) very often exaggerated its ability to influence such processes. As it turned out later (after great efforts and funds had already been expended), there are internal patterns in the development of processes (however, they are still poorly understood), and it is by no means always possible to change anything by external efforts (and sometimes these efforts give the opposite result). expected). Some of these patterns will be discussed in this book.

So, geography, ideally, should help society solve certain specific problems - that is, to fulfill applied tasks. But there are also tasks of a different kind - related to the formation of the "image of the country" for all members of society, for the entire population.

Geography of Russia

Every person should have in their head correct representation about what country, region, city, village he lives in. Without this, true patriotism is impossible - love for one's Fatherland.

“I love and know. I know and love. And I love the more fully the better I know ”- geographer Yuri Konstantinovich Efremov used these words as an epigraph to his wonderful book"The nature of my country".

Knowledge of geography is of particular importance for Russia - a country whose history is inseparable from its geography. According to historian Vasily Klyuchevsky, "the history of Russia is the history of a country that is being colonized." Another side of the significance of geography in Russia was well shown by Pushkin in his play Boris Godunov. It contains a scene in which Tsar Boris visits his son Fyodor and finds him drawing a geographical map:

King: And you, my son, what are you doing? What's this?

Fedor: Drawing of the Moscow; our kingdom

From end to end. You see: here is Moscow,

Here is Novgorod, here is Astrakhan. Here is the sea

Here are the dense forests of Perm,

But Siberia.

King: What is this?

Is there a pattern here?

Fedor: This is the Volga.

King: How good! Here sweet fruit teachings!

How can you see from the clouds

The whole kingdom suddenly: borders, cities, rivers.

Learn my son: science cuts

We experience fast-flowing life -

Someday and soon maybe

All areas that you are now

Depicted so cunningly on paper

Everything will be at your fingertips.

Learn, my son, and easier and clearer

Sovereign labor you will comprehend.

Pushkin, through the mouth of Tsar Boris, very accurately expressed here how geography can help statesman: “to survey the whole kingdom suddenly” (that is, simultaneously) in order to better understand it.

Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov (who, among other things, headed the Geographical Department Russian Academy sciences) seems to have said about geography that it "throws the whole universe into a single glance."

Traditionally served the needs Russian state, which, starting from at least since the XIV century, continuously "colonized", expanding its territory. At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries, some geographers even criticized the Russian geographical society for the fact that it was fond of studying foreign territories (to the detriment of studying Russia proper - primarily those that Russia could “have views”, if not for the purpose of joining, then to strengthen its influence in them). Now, when the six-century era of the expansion of the territory of Russia is already behind us, the tasks of geography are also changing: we all need to know better internal, “deep” Russia, on which the main efforts of the state will be directed and on which our future will eventually depend.

Physical geography is the science of the structure of the Earth's shell. This discipline is the foundation of the natural sciences. What shells of the Earth are studied by physical geography? She studies the location of various geographical objects, the shell as a whole natural phenomenon. In addition, regional differences in the Earth's shell are being studied. Given science interfere with a whole range of other sciences that study the geography of our planet.

Given that the diversity of the phase and chemical composition is quite large and extremely complex, all parts earth's crust are constantly interconnected and continuously exchange various substances, as well as necessary energy. It is this process that makes it possible to geographical envelope as a specific material in the system of our planet, a set of processes that take place inside, scientists explain how special process the motion of matter.

What kind of science is physical geography

For a long time, physical geography has been studying nature earth's surface. The only direction in time, thanks to the differentiation of some sciences, the development of human horizons, such questions began to appear, the answers to which could be obtained only by expanding the scientific spectrum. So, geophysics began to study inanimate nature, and geography completely fits into the study of all life on planet Earth. Physical geography is a science that studies both sides, that is, animate and inanimate nature, the shell of the Earth, as well as its influence on human life.

History of the development of science

Throughout the development of science, scientists have accumulated facts, materials and everything necessary for the study to be successful. The systematization of materials helped to facilitate the work and draw certain conclusions. This is what really played important role in further development physical geography like science. What does general physical geography study? AT mid-nineteenth century was very active period development in this direction. It consisted in the constant study of various natural processes that take place in a geographical shell and are caused by various geographical phenomena. The study of these phenomena was substantiated by requests practical knowledge, a deeper study and explanation of some of the patterns that began to occur in the nature of planet Earth. Thus, in order to know the nature of some phenomena, it was necessary to study certain components of the landscape. Due to this need, the development of other geographical sciences followed. Thus, a whole complex of sciences appeared, which acted as related.

Tasks of physical geography

Over time, paleography also began to relate to physical geography. Some scientists refer geography and soil science to this system. Evolution scientific knowledge, ideas and discoveries considers the whole history of physical geography. Thus, their internal and external links, practical use of regularities. So the task of physical geography became the study regional differences shells of the Earth and specific factors of manifestation of general and local patterns that correspond to certain theories. General and local patterns are interconnected, closely combined and continuously interact.

Geography of Russia

What does the physical geography of Russia study? Land resources, minerals, soil, relief changes - all this is included in the list of studies. Our country is located on three huge flat strata. Russia is rich in huge mineral deposits. In different parts of it you can find iron ore, chalk, oil, gas, copper, titanium, mercury. What does the physical geography of Russia study? Important research topics are the country's climate and water resources.

Science differentiation

The spectrum of physical and geographical sciences is based on certain materials and general patterns that are studied by physical geography. Certainly the differentiation positive influence on the development of science, but at the same time there were problems in the special physical and geographical sciences, their developments were not enough, because not all natural phenomena were studied, some facts were overused, which made it difficult to further develop in interdependent natural processes. Recent times the tendency to balance differentiation is proceeding in a rather positive way, complex studies are being investigated, a certain synthesis is being made. General physical geography uses a number of related industries in its processes natural sciences. At the same time, other sciences arise that help to further reveal more and more new knowledge. In addition to all this, the histories of sciences are preserved, with their knowledge and experiments. Thanks to this, scientific progress continues to move.

Physical geography and related sciences

Private sciences in the field of physical geography, in turn, depend on generally accepted laws. Of course, they have a progressive meaning, but the problem is that there are certain limits that do not allow one to achieve greater knowledge. This is what hinders continuous progress, for which it is necessary to discover new sciences. In many private physical and geographical sciences, chemical and biochemical methods, processes and objects are most often used, and this becomes a moving force. Physical geography connects these sciences, enriches them necessary materials and teaching methodologies. This is necessary to solve practical tasks, which gives certain predictions of changes in the natural environment under certain human actions. In addition, the above sciences connect the problem as a whole, which gives rise to more whole line new research. But what does the physical geography of continents and oceans study?

Most of the earth's surface is covered with water. Only 29% are continents and islands. There are six continents on Earth, only 6% are islands.

Relationship with economic geography

Physical geography has quite close connection with the economic sciences and many of their branches. This is due to the fact that in specific natural conditions, economic geography, one way or another, affects them. Another important condition for production is the use natural resources, and this is what affects some economic aspects. The development of the economy and industrial production changes the geography, the shell of the earth's surface, sometimes there is even an increase in the surface, such spontaneous changes should be reflected in research. Also, such changes affect the state of nature, all these points must be studied and explained. In the light of the foregoing, the study of the geographic envelope can be successful only in the case of knowledge of the conditioned way of producing the influence of human society on the nature of the planet.

Concepts of physical geography

An interesting fact is the aspects outlined in theoretical foundations physical geography, it was they who began to form at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries. Then the basic concepts of this science were formed. The first concept says that geographic shells have always been and will be integral and inseparable. All their components cooperate with each other, share energy and necessary substances. The second concept says that scientists in the field of geography explain the moment of zonality as the most important manifestations of the territorial differentiation of the planet's shell. The study of this science in local patterns, as well as local manifestations, has great value for regionalization.

Periodic zoning law

Differentiation is quite difficult geographic system, particles are interconnected, spatial changes occur, the magnitude of which should not interfere with the balance of the earth's surface. This may be affected various factors, for example, the annual amount of precipitation, the ratio between them and much, much more. Surface balance the globe closely related to land boundaries. If you look at different thermal belts, then the conditions will be different, it depends on the features of the landscape. This pattern even got its name - periodic law geographic zoning. This is what physical geography studies. The concept of this law has some general concepts and values ​​that can be applied to a large number of physiographic processes. These processes are reduced to the determination of a rational balance that is optimal for vegetation cover.

If we combine all these areas, we can conclude that science plays a very important role as a way of analyzing natural interconnections and implementation of new knowledge. The methodology of physical geography has not yet been sufficiently improved. Therefore, in subsequent years, science will also develop rapidly, it is required fresh ideas and another. Perhaps new industries will emerge.

γεωγραφία "earth description" from γῆ "earth" + γράφω write, describe)

Object of study of geography- laws and patterns of placement and interaction of the components of the geographic environment and their combinations at different levels. The complexity of the object of study and the breadth of the subject area led to the differentiation of a single geography into a number of specialized (industry) scientific disciplines that form the system of geographical sciences. Within its framework, natural (physico-geographical) and (socio-economic) geographical sciences are distinguished. Sometimes geographic cartography is singled out separately as a separate geographical discipline.

Geography is one of ancient sciences. Many of its foundations were laid in the Hellenic era. The outstanding geographer Claudius Ptolemy summarized this experience in the 1st century AD. e. The heyday of the Western geographical tradition falls on the Renaissance, which is marked by a rethinking of the achievements of the late Hellenistic era and significant achievements in cartography, which are usually associated with the name of Gerhard Mercator. The foundations of modern academic geography in the 1st half of the 19th century were laid by Alexander Humboldt and Karl Ritter.

history of geography[ | ]

Geography of the Ancient East

In the second millennium BC. e. in ancient Egypt, expeditions were equipped to the center of Africa, along the Mediterranean and Red Seas. The resettlement of peoples, wars and trade expanded people's knowledge of the surrounding spaces, developed the skills of orienting in the Sun, Moon and stars. The dependence of agriculture and animal husbandry on river floods and other periodic natural phenomena determined the appearance of the calendar.

In the III-II millennium BC. e. representatives of the Harappan civilization (on the territory of modern Pakistan) discovered the monsoons. Geography elements contain sacred ancient Indian books. In the Vedas, an entire chapter is devoted to cosmology. In the "Mahabharata" you can find a list of oceans, mountains, rivers. Already in the IX-VIII centuries BC. e. in Ancient China when choosing a place to build a fortress, they made maps of suitable sites. In the III century BC. e. there are works entirely devoted to geography, a compass and a device for measuring distance, the "Regional Atlas" of China.

Antique mediterranean geography

World map made by Ptolemy

We also heard about a round map, a contemporary of Hecateus, executed on copper and depicting the sea, land and rivers. From the testimonies of Herodotus and Aristotle, we can conclude that on the most ancient maps the inhabited earth was also depicted as round and surrounded by an ocean; from the west, from the Pillars of Hercules, the middle of the ecumene was cut through by the inner (Mediterranean) sea, to which the eastern inland sea approached from the eastern margin, and both of these seas served to separate the southern semicircle of the Earth from the northern one. Round flat maps were in use in Greece back in the time of Aristotle and later, when the sphericity of the Earth was already recognized by almost all philosophers.

The era of expeditions

Alexander von Humboldt, 1806

AT XVII-XVIII centuries the search for new lands and routes was carried out on a state scale. The fixation, mapping and generalization of the acquired knowledge acquired great importance. Search southern mainland ended with the discovery of Australia (Janszon) and Oceania. Three round the world expeditions committed by James Cook, discovering Hawaii and the Great Barrier Reef. Russian pioneers advanced to Siberia to the Far East.

Subject and methods of geography[ | ]

Satellite image of the Earth

Earth Height Map

Map as the basis of geographical research

“All geographical research comes from the map and comes to the map, it begins with the map and ends with the map” (N. N. Baransky). Despite the introduction of new methods in geography, cartographic method is one of the most important in research. This is due to the fact that the map is the most perfect way transmission of spatial information. The modeling method in geography, geoinformation and remote methods are based on the cartographic method.

Geographical picture of the world and geographical culture

Geographical culture is most often understood as the culture of geography as a science. culture geographical knowledge both geographers and the public. In the works “Geographical culture” and “Geographical picture of the world”, V.P. Maksakovskii considers these interrelated concepts from the position modern geography. It includes the following components in geographical culture: 1) geographical picture of the world, 2) geographical thinking, 3) methods of geography, 4) language of geography. There is a gap between mass and scientific geographic culture, as the society is mainly confronted with descriptive geography and has no idea about the language and methods of modern geography.

Personalities [ | ]

Scientists who have made a significant contribution to the development of geography as a science [ ] :

Alexander von Humboldt, 1847

Carl Ritter

Travelers who have made significant discoveries (excluding travel scientists):

• Vasco da Gama
• Christopher Columbus
• Ivan Fyodorovich Kruzenshtern
• Mikhail Petrovich Lazarev
• Afanasy Nikitin
• Marco Polo
• Nikolai Mikhailovich Przhevalsky
• other.

Geography is a science that originated in antiquity. For many centuries it has been describing the nature, population and economy of various regions and the Earth as a whole. Now it is no longer the only science, but whole system natural and social sciences. All of them together deeply explore the structure of the geographic shell of our planet, its constituent components, study the causes of the development of certain natural phenomena and processes, analyze the socio-economic and ecological problems etc. The system of geographical sciences consists of independent sciences, scientific disciplines and branch sciences.

To independent sciences belong to physical geography, socio-economic geography, history of geography, cartography. Physical geography studies the nature of the earth's surface and its various natural complexes. Socio-economic geography studies the population, its economic activity, patterns of production location. Both of these sciences are the main branches of geography. The history of geography studies the development of theoretical thought, the history of geographical research and discovery, describes the stages of the emergence and formation of all geographical sciences. Cartography is the science of geographical maps, methods and processes for their creation and use. Note that cartography has a special place in geography, because it serves not only geographical sciences, but sciences and branches of the national economy are quite far from it - maps are widely used, for example, in military affairs, aviation, shipping, administrative institutions.

As part of physical geography, the main scientific disciplines are geography, regional physical geography and landscape science. Each of them has its own subject of study. Thus, geography studies the geographic envelope of the Earth as an integral system, its structure, structure, dynamics, development and changes under the influence of economic activity. Regional physical geography studies the nature of various regions of the Earth, including individual continents, oceans, and countries. An important part modern physical geography is landscape science, which studies natural and transformed (anthropogenic) landscapes and their components.

Socio-economic geography also consists of three main disciplines. This is economic and social geography world, regional economic and social geography and regional studies. Each of these sciences has its own subject of research. Thus, the economic and social geography of the world studies the foundations of the geography of world production, explores the structure, location and development of the economy. individual countries in general and its main branches, analyzes the quantitative and qualitative state of the population, formulates questions of theory and discovers the laws of development of subjects of study. Regional economic and social geography studies the economy of countries and economic regions (industrial-territorial complexes) and the connections between them. Country studies gives a general description of nature and economy individual states or large territories. A component of regional studies is local history, the subject of which is small territories - their nature, economy, history, life of people, etc.

The science of nature conservation has crystallized in physical and economic geography and therefore combines issues of nature and economics. This is the doctrine of natural resources and their rational use. The task of this science is to provide effective use natural resources, their expanded reproduction, the preservation of valuable and endangered species of plants and animals, unique landscapes.

Individual branches of science are also actively involved in issues of nature protection. They separated from geography as a result of the accumulation a large number scientific knowledge about the Earth and in connection with the need for a deep study of the various components of nature and sectors of the economy, as well as the laws of development of nature and society. Let us first name the branches of science that have emerged from general physical geography. Geomorphology - the science of the Earth's relief, the origin and patterns of development of its forms. Oceanology is the study of the physical, chemical, geological and biological processes and phenomena in the World Ocean, the ocean floor, the spatial differentiation of waters and the influence of these factors on the formation of the nature of the planet. Hydrology essentially studies water bodies on land: rivers, lakes, swamps, The groundwater, glaciers. Soil geography studies the regularities in the distribution of soils on the earth's surface. Biogeography studies patterns geographical distribution and distribution on the planet of plants, animals and their groups, as well as the nature, history of the formation of fauna and flora of individual territories.

Socio-economic geography also gave rise to several separate branch sciences. Each of them explores separate objects. Population geography studies the territorial patterns of formation, distribution and development of the population in a certain socio-economic and geographical environment, social geography - the features and patterns of the territorial organization of society in various countries, districts, localities, natural areas. Geography and economics of natural resources studies natural resources and carries out economic evaluation them in the country, region, district or any other specific territory. The geography of industry explores the territorial structure of industrial production, the objective patterns and features of the development of industry as a whole and for individual groups of industries within territorial systems different levels. The subject of studying the geography of agriculture is agrarian-territorial complexes different types and regions, geography of transport - conditions, factors and patterns of formation, functioning and territorial organization transport systems as a means of communication between territorial production complexes.

Ecology in a broad sense is a science that studies the relationship between living organisms and their environment. Now very great importance acquire complex studies of the interaction of nature and society in order to substantiate rational use natural resources and conservation favorable conditions for life on our planet.

The described system of geographical sciences does not cover all its branches. In particular, it does not mention such sciences as medical, military and political geography, paleogeography, glaciology, permafrost, geoecology, and some others. And although the classification of the modern division of geography is not complete, it shows that all geographical sciences are united by a close relationship between the studied objects and commonality. ultimate goal, which is comprehensive study nature, population and economy and in determining the nature of the interaction between human society and the environment.