Literary trends and currents: classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism, realism, modernism (symbolism, acmeism, futurism)

In modern literary criticism, the terms "direction" and "flow" can be interpreted in different ways. Sometimes they are used as synonyms (classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism, realism and modernism are called both currents and directions), and sometimes the current is identified with literary school or grouping, and the direction - with artistic method or style (in this case, the direction incorporates two or more currents).

As a rule, a literary trend is a group of writers who are similar in the type of artistic thinking. About existence literary direction can be said if the writers are aware of theoretical basis their artistic activities, promote them in manifestos, program speeches, articles. So, the first program article of the Russian futurists was the manifesto “Slap in the face public taste", in which the main aesthetic principles new direction.

Under certain circumstances, groups of writers who are especially close to each other in their aesthetic views can be formed within the framework of one literary movement. Such groups that form within any direction are usually called a literary trend. For example, within the framework of such a literary trend as symbolism, two currents can be distinguished: "senior" symbolists and "junior" symbolists (according to another classification - three: decadents, "senior" symbolists, "junior" symbolists).

Classicism (from lat. classicus - exemplary) - artistic direction in European art at the turn of X VII-XV ІІІ - early XIX century, formed in France in late XVII century. Classicism asserted the primacy of state interests over personal interests, the predominance of civil, patriotic motives, the cult of moral duty. The aesthetics of classicism is characterized by the severity of artistic forms: compositional unity, normative style and plots. Representatives of Russian classicism: Kantemir, Trediakovsky, Lomonosov, Sumarokov, Knyaznin, Ozerov and others.

One of the most important features of classicism is the perception of ancient art as a model, an aesthetic standard (hence the name of the direction). The goal is to create works of art in the image and likeness of antique ones. In addition, the formation of classicism a huge impact had the ideas of the Enlightenment and the cult of reason (belief in the omnipotence of reason and that the world can be reorganized on a reasonable basis).

Classicists (representatives of classicism) perceived artistic creativity as a strict adherence to reasonable rules, eternal laws, created on the basis of studying the best examples of ancient literature. Based on these reasonable laws, they divided works into "correct" and "incorrect". For example, even Shakespeare's best plays were classified as "wrong". This was due to the fact that Shakespeare's characters combined positive and negative traits. And the creative method of classicism was formed on the basis of rationalistic thinking. There was a strict system of characters and genres: all characters and genres were distinguished by "purity" and unambiguity. So, in one hero it was strictly forbidden not only to combine vices and virtues (that is, positive and negative traits), but even several vices. The hero had to embody any one character trait: either a miser, or a braggart, or a hypocrite, or a hypocrite, or good, or evil, etc.

The main conflict of classic works is the struggle of the hero between reason and feeling. At the same time, the positive hero must always make a choice in favor of the mind (for example, choosing between love and the need to completely surrender to the service of the state, he must choose the latter), and the negative one - in favor of feelings.

The same can be said about the genre system. All genres were divided into high (ode, epic poem, tragedy) and low (comedy, fable, epigram, satire). At the same time, touching episodes were not supposed to be introduced into comedy, and funny episodes into tragedy. In the high genres, “exemplary” heroes were depicted - monarchs, “commanders who could serve as an example to follow. In the low genres, characters were depicted covered by some kind of “passion”, that is, a strong feeling.

There were special rules for dramatic works. They had to observe three "unities" - places, times and actions. Unity of place: classicist dramaturgy did not allow a change of scene, that is, during the entire play, the characters had to be in the same place. Unity of time: artistic time works are not

should have exceeded several hours, in extreme cases - one day. Unity of action implies that there is only one storyline. All these requirements are connected with the fact that the classicists wanted to create a kind of illusion of life on the stage. Sumarokov: "Try to measure my hours in the game for hours, so that I, forgetting, could believe you."

So, character traits literary classicism:

The purity of the genre (in high genres, funny or everyday situations and heroes, and in the low ones - tragic and sublime);

Purity of language (in high genres - high vocabulary, in low - vernacular);

Heroes are strictly divided into positive and negative, while positive heroes, choosing between feeling and reason, prefer the latter;

Compliance with the rule of "three unities";

The work should affirm positive values ​​and the state ideal.

Russian classicism is characterized by state pathos (the state (and not a person) was declared the highest value) in conjunction with faith in the theory of enlightened absolutism. According to the theory of enlightened absolutism, the state should be headed by a wise, enlightened monarch, who requires everyone to serve for the benefit of society. Russian classicists, inspired by the reforms of Peter the Great, believed in the possibility of further improvement of society, which seemed reasonable to them. organized organism. Sumarokov: "Peasants plow, merchants trade, warriors defend the fatherland, judges judge, scientists cultivate science." The classicists treated human nature in the same rationalistic way. They believed that human nature is selfish, subject to passions, that is, feelings that oppose reason, but at the same time lend themselves to education.

Sentimentalism (from English sentimental - sensitive, from French sentiment

Feeling) - the literary direction of the second half of XVIII century, which replaced classicism. Sentimentalists proclaimed the primacy of feeling, not reason. A person was judged by his ability to deep feelings. Hence the interest in inner world the hero, the image of the shades of his feelings (the beginning of psychologism).

Unlike the classicists, sentimentalists consider not the state, but the individual, to be the highest value. unfair orders feudal world they contrasted the eternal and rational laws of nature. In this regard, nature for sentimentalists is the measure of all values, including man himself. It is no coincidence that they asserted the superiority of the "natural", "natural" man, that is, living in harmony with nature.

Sensitivity also underlies the creative method of sentimentalism. If the classicists created generalized characters (a hypocrite, a braggart, a miser, a fool), then sentimentalists are interested in specific people with individual destiny. Heroes in their works are clearly divided into positive and negative. The positive ones are endowed with natural sensitivity (sympathetic, kind, compassionate, capable of self-sacrifice). Negative - prudent, selfish, arrogant, cruel. The carriers of sensitivity, as a rule, are peasants, artisans, raznochintsy, rural clergy. Cruel - representatives of power, nobles, higher spiritual ranks (since despotic rule kills sensitivity in people). Manifestations of sensitivity in the works of sentimentalists often acquire a too external, even exaggerated character (exclamations, tears, fainting, suicides).

One of the main discoveries of sentimentalism is the individualization of the hero and the image of the rich spiritual world of a commoner (the image of Lisa in Karamzin's story " Poor Lisa"). The main character of the works was an ordinary person. In this regard, the plot of the work often represented individual situations of everyday life, while peasant life was often depicted in pastoral colors. New content required new form. The leading genres are family romance, diary, confession, novel in letters, travel notes, elegy, message.

In Russia, sentimentalism originated in the 1760s (the best representatives are Radishchev and Karamzin). As a rule, in the works of Russian sentimentalism, the conflict develops betweena serf and a landowner-serf, and the moral superiority of the former is persistently emphasized.

Romanticism - artistic direction in European and American culture of the late XVIII - first half of XIX century. Romanticism arose in the 1790s, first in Germany, and then spread throughout Western Europe. The prerequisites for the emergence were the crisis of rationalism of the Enlightenment, the artistic search for pre-romantic trends (sentimentalism), the French Revolution, and German classical philosophy.

The emergence of this literary trend, as well as any other, is inextricably linked with the socio-historical events of that time. Let's start with the prerequisites for the formation of romanticism in Western European literatures. The French Revolution of 1789-1899 and the reassessment of the educational ideology associated with it had a decisive influence on the formation of romanticism in Western Europe. As you know, X VIII century in France passed under the sign of the Enlightenment. For almost a century, French enlighteners led by Voltaire (Rousseau, Diderot, Montesquieu) argued that the world could be reorganized on a reasonable basis and proclaimed the idea of ​​natural (natural) equality of all people. It was these educational ideas that inspired the French revolutionaries, whose slogan was the words: “Liberty, equality and fraternity. The result of the revolution was the establishment of a bourgeois republic. As a result, the winner was the bourgeois minority, which seized power (it used to belong to the aristocracy, high nobility), while the rest were left with nothing. Thus, the long-awaited "kingdom of reason" turned out to be an illusion, as well as the promised freedom, equality and fraternity. There was a general disappointment in the results and results of the revolution, a deep dissatisfaction with the surrounding reality, which became a prerequisite for the emergence of romanticism. Because the basis of romanticism is the principle of dissatisfaction with the existing order of things. This was followed by the emergence of the theory of romanticism in Germany.

As you know, Western European culture, in particular French, had a huge impact on Russian. This trend continued into the 19th century, so the French Revolution also shook Russia. But, in addition, there are actually russian background emergence of Russian romanticism. First of all, this Patriotic War 1812, clearly showing the greatness and strength of the common people. It was to the people that Russia owed the victory over Napoleon, the people were true hero war. Meanwhile, both before the war and after it, the bulk of the people, the peasants, still remained serfs, in fact, slaves. What was previously perceived by the progressive people of that time as an injustice, now began to seem flagrant injustice contrary to all logic and morality. But after the end of the war, Alexander I not only did not cancel serfdom, but also began to pursue a much tougher policy. As a result, Russian society has a bright pronounced feeling disappointment and dissatisfaction. Thus, the ground for the emergence of romanticism arose.

The term "romanticism" in relation to the literary movement is accidental and inaccurate. In this regard, from the very beginning of its inception, it was interpreted in different ways: some believed that it comes from the word "roman", others - from knightly poetry created in countries that speak Romance languages. For the first time, the word "romanticism" as the name of a literary movement began to be used in Germany, where the first sufficiently detailed theory of romanticism was created.

Very important for understanding the essence of romanticism is the concept romantic duality. As already mentioned, rejection, denial of reality is the main prerequisite for the emergence of romanticism. All romantics reject the world, hence their romantic escape from existing life and the search for an ideal outside of it. This gave rise to the emergence of a romantic dual world. The world for romantics was divided into two parts: here and there. “There” and “here” are antithesis (contrast), these categories are correlated as ideal and reality. The despised "here" is a modern reality, where evil and injustice triumph. “There” is a kind of poetic reality that the romantics opposed to reality. Many romantics believed that goodness, beauty and truth, repressed

from public life, are still preserved in the souls of people. Hence their attention to the inner world of man, in-depth psychologism. The souls of people are their "there". For example, Zhukovsky was looking for "there" in the other world; Pushkin and Lermontov, Fenimore Cooper - in free life uncivilized peoples (Pushkin's poems " Prisoner of the Caucasus”, “Gypsies”, Cooper’s novels about the life of the Indians).

Rejection, denial of reality determined the specifics of the romantic hero. It is fundamentally new hero, similar to him did not know the previous literature. He is in hostile relations with the surrounding society, opposed to it. This is an unusual person, restless, most often lonely and with tragic fate. romantic hero- the embodiment of a romantic rebellion against reality.

Realism (from Latin realis - material, real) - a method (creative setting) or a literary trend that embodies the principles of a life-truthful attitude to reality, striving for artistic knowledge of man and the world. Often the term "realism" is used in two senses: 1) realism as a method; 2) realism as a trend that emerged in the 19th century. Both classicism, and romanticism, and symbolism strive for the knowledge of life and express their reaction to it in their own way, but only in realism does fidelity to reality become the defining criterion of artistry. This distinguishes realism, for example, from romanticism, which is characterized by the rejection of reality and the desire to “recreate” it, and not display it as it is. It is no coincidence that, referring to the realist Balzac, the romantic George Sand defined the difference between him and herself in this way: “You take a person as he appears to your eyes; I feel a calling to portray him the way I would like to see. Thus, we can say that the realists represent the real, and the romantics - the desired.

The beginning of the formation of realism is usually associated with the Renaissance. The realism of this time is characterized by the scale of images (Don Quixote, Hamlet) and the poeticization of the human personality, the perception of man as the king of nature, the crown of creation. The next stage is enlightenment realism. In the literature of the Enlightenment, a democratic realistic hero appears, a man "from the bottom" (for example, Figaro in Beaumarchais's plays "The Barber of Seville" and "The Marriage of Figaro"). New types of romanticism appeared in the 19th century: "fantastic" (Gogol, Dostoevsky), "grotesque" (Gogol, Saltykov-Shchedrin) and "critical" realism associated with the activities of the "natural school".

The main requirements of realism: observance of the principles of nationality, historicism, high artistry, psychologism, the image of life in its development. Realist writers showed a direct dependence of social, moral, religious beliefs heroes from social conditions, great attention devoted to the social aspect. Central problem realism - the ratio of plausibility and artistic truth. Plausibility, a plausible depiction of life is very important for realists, but artistic truth is determined not by plausibility, but by fidelity in comprehending and conveying the essence of life and the significance of the ideas expressed by the artist. One of key features realism is the typification of characters (the fusion of the typical and the individual, the uniquely personal). The credibility of a realistic character directly depends on the degree of individualization achieved by the writer.

Realist writers create new types of heroes: the type " little man"(Vyrin, Slippers n, Marmeladov, Devushkin), type" extra person"(Chatsky, Onegin, Pechorin, Oblomov), the type of a "new" hero (nihilist Bazarov in Turgenev, "new people" Chernyshevsky).

Modernism (from French contemporary - the latest, modern) - a philosophical and aesthetic movement in literature and art that arose on turn of XIX-XX centuries.

This term has various interpretations:

1) designates a number of non-realistic trends in art and literature at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries: symbolism, futurism, acmeism, expressionism, cubism, imaginism, surrealism, abstractionism, impressionism;

2) used as symbol aesthetic searches of artists of non-realistic trends;

3) designates a complex set of aesthetic and ideological phenomena, including not only modernist trends proper, but also the work of artists who do not completely fit into the framework of any direction (D. Joyce, M. Proust, F. Kafka and others).

Symbolism, acmeism and futurism became the most striking and significant trends in Russian modernism.

Symbolism - a non-realistic trend in art and literature of the 1870s-1920s, focused mainly on artistic expression with the help of a symbol of intuitively comprehended essences and ideas. Symbolism made itself known in France in the 1860s and 1870s in poetry A. Rimbaud, P. Verlaine, S. Mallarme. Then, through poetry, symbolism connected itself not only with prose and dramaturgy, but also with other forms of art. The ancestor, founder, "father" of symbolism is considered French writer Sh. Baudelaire.

At the heart of the worldview of symbolist artists lies the idea of ​​the unknowability of the world and its laws. They considered the only "tool" for understanding the world spiritual experience human and creative intuition of the artist.

Symbolism was the first to put forward the idea of ​​creating art free from the task of depicting reality. Symbolists argued that the purpose of art is not in the image real world, which they considered secondary, but in the transmission of "higher reality". They intended to achieve this with the help of a symbol. Symbol - expression supersensible intuition poet, who in moments of insight opens true essence of things. The Symbolists developed a new poetic language that does not directly name the subject, but hints at its content through allegory, musicality, colors, free verse.

Symbolism is the first and most significant of the modernist movements that arose in Russia. The first manifesto of Russian symbolism was the article by D. S. Merezhkovsky “On the Causes of the Decline and New Trends in Modern Russian Literature”, published in 1893. It identified three main elements of the "new art": mystical content, symbolization and "expansion of artistic impressionability."

Symbolists are usually divided into two groups, or currents:

1) "senior" symbolists (V. Bryusov, K. Balmont, D. Merezhkovsky, Z. Gippius, F. Sologub

and others), who debuted in the 1890s;

2) "younger" symbolists who began their creative activity in the 1900s and significantly updated the appearance of the current (A. Blok, A. Bely, V. Ivanov and others).

It should be noted that the "senior" and "junior" symbolists were separated not so much by age as by the difference in attitudes and the direction of creativity.

The Symbolists believed that art is, first of all, “comprehension of the world in other, non-rational ways” (Bryusov). After all, only phenomena subject to the law of linear causality can be rationally comprehended, and such causality acts only in lower forms life (empirical reality, everyday life). The Symbolists were interested in the higher spheres of life (the area of ​​"absolute ideas" in Plato's terms or "world soul", according to V. Solovyov), not subject to rational knowledge. It is art that has the ability to penetrate into these spheres, and the images-symbols with their infinite ambiguity are able to reflect the entire complexity of the world universe. The Symbolists believed that the ability to comprehend the true, higher reality is given only to the elect, who, in moments of inspired insights, are able to comprehend the “higher” truth, absolute truth.

The image-symbol was considered by the symbolists as more effective than artistic image, a tool that helps to “break through” through the cover of everyday life ( lower life) to a higher reality. A symbol differs from a realistic image in that it conveys not objective essence phenomena, but the poet's own, individual idea of ​​the world. In addition, a symbol, as Russian symbolists understood it, is not an allegory, but, first of all, an image that requires a response from the reader. creative work. The symbol, as it were, connects the author and the reader - this is the revolution produced by symbolism in art.

The image-symbol is fundamentally polysemantic and contains the prospect of an unlimited deployment of meanings. This trait of his was repeatedly emphasized by the symbolists themselves: “The symbol is only

then a true symbol is when it is inexhaustible in its meaning” (Vyach. Ivanov); “A symbol is a window to infinity” (F. Sologub).

Acmeism (from the Greek act - highest degree something, blooming power, pinnacle) - modernist literary movement in Russian poetry of the 1910s. Representatives: S. Gorodetsky, early A. Akhmatova, L. Gumilyov, O. Mandelstam. The term "acmeism" belongs to Gumilyov. Aesthetic program was formulated in the articles of Gumilyov "The Heritage of Symbolism and Acmeism", Gorodetsky "Some Trends in Modern Russian Poetry" and Mandelstam's "Morning of Acmeism".

Acmeism stood out from symbolism, criticizing its mystical aspirations for the “unknowable”: “Among the Acmeists, the rose again became good in itself, with its petals, smell and color, and not with its conceivable similarities with mystical love or anything else” (Gorodetsky) . Acmeists proclaimed the liberation of poetry from symbolist impulses to the ideal, from the ambiguity and fluidity of images, complicated metaphor; talked about the need to return to material world, subject, exact value the words. Symbolism is based on the rejection of reality, and the acmeists believed that one should not abandon this world, one should look for some values ​​​​in it and capture them in their works, and do this with the help of accurate and understandable images, and not vague symbols.

Actually, the acmeist current was small, did not last long - about two years (1913-1914) - and was associated with the "Workshop of Poets". The "Poets Workshop" was established in 1911 and at first united quite a few a large number of people (not all of them later turned out to be involved in acmeism). This organization was much more cohesive than the disparate symbolist groups. At the meetings of the "Workshop" poems were analyzed, problems were solved poetic skill, methods of analysis of works were substantiated. The idea of ​​a new direction in poetry was first expressed by Kuzmin, although he himself did not enter the "Workshop". In his article “On Beautiful Clarity”, Kuzmin anticipated many declarations of acmeism. In January 1913, the first manifestos of acmeism appeared. From this moment, the existence of a new direction begins.

Acmeism proclaimed "beautiful clarity" as the task of literature, or clarism (from lat. clarus - clear). Acmeists called their current Adamism, linking the idea of ​​a clear and direct view of the world with the biblical Adam. Acmeism preached a clear, “simple” poetic language, where words would directly name objects, declare their love for objectivity. So, Gumilyov urged to look not for “unsteady words”, but for words “with a more stable content”. This principle was most consistently realized in Akhmatova's lyrics.

Futurism - one of the main avant-garde trends (avant-garde is an extreme manifestation of modernism) in European art of the early 20th century, which received greatest development in Italy and Russia.

In 1909, in Italy, the poet F. Marinetti published the Futurist Manifesto. The main provisions of this manifesto: the rejection of traditional aesthetic values ​​and the experience of all previous literature, bold experiments in the field of literature and art. As the main elements of futuristic poetry, Marinetti calls "courage, audacity, rebellion." In 1912, the Russian futurists V. Mayakovsky, A. Kruchenykh, V. Khlebnikov created their manifesto "Slap in the face of public taste". They also sought to break with traditional culture, welcomed literary experimentation, sought to find new means speech expressiveness(proclamation of a new free rhythm, loosening of syntax, destruction of punctuation marks). At the same time, Russian futurists rejected fascism and anarchism, which Marinetti declared in his manifestos, and turned mainly to aesthetic problems. They proclaimed a revolution of form, its independence from content ("what is important is not what, but how") and absolute freedom poetic word.

Futurism was a heterogeneous direction. Within its framework, four main groups or currents can be distinguished:

1) "Hilea", which united cubo-futurists (V. Khlebnikov, V. Mayakovsky, A. Kruchenykh

other);

2) "Association of Egofuturists" (I. Severyanin, I. Ignatiev and others);

3) "Mezzanine of poetry" (V. Shershenevich, R. Ivnev);

4) "Centrifuge" (S. Bobrov, N. Aseev, B. Pasternak).

The most significant and influential group was the "Gilea": in fact, it was she who determined the face of Russian futurism. Its participants released many collections: "The Garden of Judges" (1910), "Slap in the Face of Public Taste" (1912), "Dead Moon * (1913)," Took "(1915).

The Futurists wrote in the name of the man of the crowd. At the heart of this movement was the feeling of "the inevitability of the collapse of the old" (Mayakovsky), the awareness of the birth of a "new humanity". Artistic creativity, according to the futurists, should not be an imitation, but a continuation of nature, which creates through the creative will of man " new world, today, iron ... "(Malevich). This is the reason for the desire to destroy the "old" form, the desire for contrasts, the attraction to colloquial speech. Relying on living colloquial, futurists were engaged in "word-creation" (created neologisms). Their works were distinguished by complex semantic and compositional shifts - a contrast between the comic and the tragic, fantasy and lyrics.

Futurism began to disintegrate already in 1915-1916.



Classicism

Classicism (from Latin - exemplary) - art style and aesthetic direction in European art of the 17th-19th centuries, one of the most important features of which was the appeal to ancient art as the highest model and reliance on the traditions of the high Renaissance. The art of classicism reflected the ideas of a harmonious structure of society. The conflicts of the individual and society, ideal and reality, feelings and reason testify to the complexity of the art of classicism. art forms classicism is characterized by strict organization, balance, clarity and harmony of images.

	Europe	Russia
Time of occurrence	Formed in the 17th century in France, then spread throughout Europe	formed in the second quarter XVIII century
	The emergence of classicism is associated with the establishment and development of absolute monarchies in Europe - the creation of an exemplary hierarchical society (in particular, the reign of Louis XIV in France)	The emergence and development of classicism in Russia is associated with the establishment absolute monarchy, mainly with the reign of Empress Catherine II
Main features	The concept of a reasonable predominance of duty over human feelings and passions is the basis of the aesthetics of classicism; Rigid hierarchy of genres", tragic and sublime characters are depicted in the high ones, everyday funny situations are considered in the low ones; Vocabulary corresponding to the genre is used; The works affirm positive sample behavior, values ​​and state ideal; In the dramaturgy of classicism, the rule of "three unities" is observed: place, time and action; Heroes are divided into positive and negative; Heroes of tragedy prominent figures, the main conflict is the choice between feeling and duty; The heroes of the comedy have clear roles, certainly the role of a reasoner who expresses the author's position; Characters are divided into main and secondary; The characters of the heroes must be truthful - their actions must be in strict subordination to internal logic, this is how the unity of character is expressed; Heroes are static and one-sided
Theorists	R. Descartes, rationalist philosopher;	The theory of classicism spread through the works of: M. V. Lomonosov (the theory of "three calms", set out in the "Foreword on the benefits of church books in Russian language”), V. K. Trediakovsky (the approval of the syllabic-tonic system of versification in the “New and short way to the composition of Russian poetry"), A. P. Sumarokova (epistole "On poetry" - transcription of the work of N. Boileau)
Representatives	"Tragedies": P. Corneille, J. Racine; comedian J.-B. Molière; fabulist J. La Fontaine	A. D. Kantemir, B. K. Trediakovsky, M. V. Lomonosov, G. R. Derzhavin; "tragedians" A. P. Sumarokov, Ya. B. Knyazhnin; comedian D. I. Fonvizin; fabulist I. A. Krylov
	Samples of high genres
	Ode, epic poem, tragedy (tragedies by P. Corneille "Sid", J. Racine "Phaedra")	Ode, epic poem, tragedy (ode by M. V. Lomonosov "On the day of accession to ... the throne ... Elizabeth Petrovna", odes by G. R. Derzhavin "Felitsa", "God")
Topics and tasks	The conflict between duty and passion or selfish desires was necessarily resolved in favor of duty, even if the hero died in an unequal struggle. In tragedy, the classicist taught the viewer resilience in the struggle of life, for example goodie served as a model of moral behavior. Ode - a lyrical work dedicated to the image of large historical events or persons speaking about significant topics of religious and philosophical content, saturated with a solemn tone, pathetic enthusiasm of the author, who is aware of himself in power higher powers, body or divine will or popular reason
	Samples of low genres
	comedy, fable, epigram, satire	Comedy, fable, epigram, satire (comedies by D. I. Fonvizin "Undergrowth", "Brigadier", fables by I. A. Krylov)
Topics and tasks	The comedy depicts the life of "ordinary" people: burghers, servants. Showing human vices, which are always defeated by virtue, the language of comedy and fable is “reduced”, ordinary. The task of a comedian and a fabulist is to expose and ridicule vice, affirm virtue, lead the viewer-reader to a clear conclusion, formulate a “moral”

Sentimentalism

Sentimentalism (from French sepitep1 - feeling) - a trend in the literature and art of Europe and Russia in the second half of the 18th century, characterized by an increased interest in human feelings and aggravated emotional attitude to the surrounding world. The innovation of sentimentalism lies in the exclusive attention to the state of mind of the individual and the appeal to the experiences of a simple, humble person. Works written within this artistic direction emphasize the reader's perception, that is, the sensitivity that arises when reading them. The hero in sentimentalism is individualized, his inner world is enriched by the ability to empathize, sensitively respond to what is happening around.

occurrence	Formed in the second half of the 18th century in England, then spread throughout Europe	Formed in the second half of the XVIII - first quarter XIX century
Historical circumstances contributing to the emergence	Appearance sentimentalism is associated with the Enlightenment, it reflected the growth of democratic sentiment in society	The emergence and development of sentimentalism in Russia is associated with the penetration and spread of the ideas of the Enlightenment in Russian society
Main features	Attention is paid peace of mind of a person, in the first place are feelings, not great ideas; the world is reflected from the position of feeling, not reason;
Main features	Sentimentalism is characterized by a cult privacy, rural existence and even primitiveness and savagery; The protagonist of sentimentalism becomes the "natural" man; vocabulary characteristic of colloquial speech is used; Interest in folklore as a form of the most direct manifestation of feelings; The hero can do both evil and good deeds to experience both noble and low feelings; Lack of rigid aesthetic canons and forms
Writers and works	England: L. Stern "Sentimental Journey", J. Thomson "Winter", T. Gray "Rural Cemetery", S. Richardson "Pamela", "Clarissa Garlo", "Sir Charles Grandison" France: Abbé Prevost "Manon Lescaut" J.-J. Rousseau "Julia, or New Eloise"	N. M. Karamzin "Poor Liza", "Letters from a Russian Traveler", A. N. Radishchev "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow"
	Roman-journey

Romanticism

Romanticism is an ideological and artistic trend in European and American culture of the late 18th century - the first half of the 19th century. It is characterized by the assertion of the intrinsic value of the spiritual and creative life of the individual, the image of strong (often rebellious) passions and characters, spiritualized and healing nature. Spread to various areas human activity. In the 18th century, everything that was strange, fantastic, picturesque, and existing in books, and not in reality, was called romantic. At the beginning

In the 19th century, romanticism became the designation of a new direction, opposite to classicism and the Enlightenment.

Time of occurrence	Formed in the 18th century in Germany and England, then spread throughout Europe	formed in late XVIII- early 19th century
Historical circumstances contributing to the emergence	The prerequisite for the development of romanticism was the events of the Great french revolution. The emergence of romanticism is associated with the anti-enlightenment movement, the causes of which lie in disillusionment with civilization, in social, industrial, political and scientific progress. Romanticism replaces the Enlightenment and coincides with industrial revolution. Romanticism affirms the cult of nature, feelings and the natural in man. The image of the “noble savage”, armed “ folk wisdom and not spoiled by civilization. Romantics portray unusual person in unusual circumstances, they opposed progressive civilization.	In Russia, romanticism first appears in the poetry of V. A. Zhukovsky. The history of Russian romanticism is usually divided into two periods. He reached his peak in the work of A. S. Pushkin. Freedom, including from despotic political regimes, is one of the main themes of the works of this period. After the Decembrist uprising, the opposition between the lyrical hero and society becomes fatal. The tragic impossibility of finding harmony in society is affirmed. The peak of this period was the work of M. Yu. Lermontov
Main	Centre art system romanticism - personality, and main conflict between the individual and society. Rejection social structure threatening the nature of man and his personal freedom, a protest against lack of spirituality and selfishness. Romanticism opposes the Enlightenment idea of ​​progress and the tendency to discard everything “obsolete and obsolete” with an interest in folklore, myth, fairy tale, common man, a return to the roots and to nature.
	The chanting of the sublime is connected with the interest of romanticism in evil, its ennoblement and the dialectic of good and evil. Romanticism is based on the ideas of freedom and the search for the ideal, the absolute. In romanticism, freedom from classical conventions appears, a ballad, a romantic drama, is created. A new idea of ​​the essence and meaning of poetry is affirmed, which is recognized as an independent sphere of life, an expression of the highest, ideal aspirations of man. In the era of romanticism, the discovery of the culture of the Middle Ages takes place. Vivid pictures of nature, life, life and customs of distant countries and peoples also inspired romantics. They were looking for features that make up the fundamental basis of the national spirit
Theorists	The Schlegel brothers (August Wilhelm and Friedrich), Novalis, Hölderlin
Representatives	Germany: a circle of writers and philosophers of the "Jena school": brothers V. and J. Grimm, E. T. A. Hoffmann, G. Heine. England: poets of the "lake school": W. Wordsworth, S. T. Coleridge. J. Byron, P. B. Shelley, J. Keats, W. Blake, W. Scott. France: writers F.-R. Chateaubriand, P. Mérimée, George Sand. Poland: poets A. Mickiewicz, Y. Slovak. writers W. Irving, F. Cooper, E. Poe, G. Longfellow	V. A. Zhukovsky, K. N. Batyushkov, K. F. Ryleev M. Yu. Lermontov
	romantic poem Historical novel	A. S. Pushkin "Prisoner of the Caucasus", "Gypsies", "Fountain of Bakhchisaray",

End of table

Realism

Realism (from the Latin geaiz - real, material) - an ideological and artistic direction in European and American culture XIX century. It is characterized by the assertion of an objective view of reality, the desire for a psychological depiction of the characters' characters, an analysis of the circumstances that form the type of personality, an understanding of the patterns of development of events and relationships. The goal is an accurate and complete reproduction of objective reality in its typical features Oh.

Time of occurrence	The beginning of realism as a form of artistic consciousness was laid, according to various researchers, either in the Renaissance ("Renaissance realism"), or in the Age of Enlightenment ("enlightenment realism"). In the 30s years XIX century in the art of Europe and Russia, an artistic direction arose (“actually realism”), which was common in all types of art until the 20th century	The first outstanding examples of Russian literature of realism were the works of A. S. Pushkin, the founder of this trend, the creation of which begins in 1825: the historical drama "Boris Godunov", Captain's daughter”, “Dubrovsky”, “Tales of Belkin”, the novel “Eugene Onegin”. An important role in the ideological and aesthetic evolution of the poet was played by his rapprochement with the Decembrists during the southern exile.
Historical circumstances contributing to the emergence	The development of capitalism in Europe and Russia, the crisis of romanticism. In the 1940s, a doctrine emerged that influenced the formation of a new literary trend - the doctrine of K. Marx and F. Engels, who combined the dialectics of G. Hegel with the materialism of L. Feuerbach	The formation of the realistic method - especially at the very initial period- looks primarily as the formation of individual creative methods. Therefore, it is more expedient to get acquainted with the specifics of realism in the first half of the 19th century using the example of its luminaries
Main features	Artistic depiction of life in images, corresponding to the essence of the phenomena of life itself. Reality is a means of man's knowledge of himself and the world around him. Typification of images is achieved through the veracity of details in specific conditions. Even in a tragic conflict, art is life-affirming. Realism is inherent in the desire to consider reality in development, the ability to detect the development of new social, psychological and social relations. An objective reflection of the essential aspects of life, combined with the height and truth of the author's ideal. Reproduction of typical characters, conflicts, situations with the completeness of their artistic individualization (i.e., concretization of both national, historical, social signs, as well as physical, intellectual and spiritual features). Preference in ways of depicting "forms of life itself". The prevailing interest in the problem of "personality and society"
Theorists	G.-E. Lessing is an outstanding German writer, critic, theorist of realism in literature and art. literary manifesto realism was the preface of O. Balzac in "The Human Comedy"	In Russia, D. Pisarev was the first to widely introduce the term "realism" into journalism and criticism; until that time, the term "realism" was used by A. Herzen in philosophical meaning, as a synonym for the concept of "materialism" (1846)

Representatives

Europe

France:

Stendhal, O. Balzac,

G. de Maupassant, G. Flaubert, R. Rolland;

England:

Ch. Dickens, W. Thackeray; USA:

M. Twain, W. Faulkner; Germany: T. Mann

Russia

A. S. Pushkin "Boris Godunov",

"Eugene Onegin", "Little Tragedies", "The Captain's Daughter", "Tales of Belkin";

M. Yu. Lermontov "A Hero of Our Time";

N. V. Gogol

"Petersburg Tales", "Dead Souls";

I. S. Turgenev "Notes of a hunter",

"Fathers and Sons";

F. M. Dostoevsky "Crime and Punishment",

"The Brothers Karamazov" and others; A. N. Ostrovsky "Dowry",

"Thunderstorm" and others;

M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin "History of one city" and others;

L. N. Tolstoy "War and Peace",

"Anna Karenina", "Sunday" and others;

A.P. Chekhov "The Cherry Orchard",

"Three Sisters", "The Seagull", stories;

I. A. Bunin "The Life of Arseniev", " Dark alleys" and etc.;

A. I. Kuprin " Garnet bracelet”, “Olesya”, etc.

epic novel

1.6. The form and content of a literary work:

	Wording
	The subject depicted in literary work, the main idea, the main sound of the work. A holistic image of the world, which determines the artist's poetic worldview. Every artist has his own theme, his own image of the world.	M. Yu. Lermontov "A Hero of Our Time": the theme of the work is the image of the typical features of the generation of the 30s of the XIX century, embodied in the image of Pechorin
		M. Yu. Lermontov "The Hero of Our Time": the idea of ​​the work is to show the barrenness and lack of spirituality of the life of the "hero of the time", the condemnation of extreme selfishness, the tragedy of the hero's life
Issues	The main question posed by the writer in a literary work
	Wording
Story and plot	The plot is a set of events related to each other, which are reported in the work. The plot is the same events, but in their presentation in the order in which they are reported in the work, in the connection in which the messages about them are given in the work. Event system in work of art, presented in a certain connection, revealing the characters of the characters and the attitude of the writer to the depicted life phenomena	M. Yu. Lermontov "A Hero of Our Time": plot - short stories in chronological order("Taman", Princess Mary", "Fatalist", "Bela", "Maxim Maksimych"); plot - "Bela", "Maxim Maksimych", "Taman", "Princess Mary", "Fatalist"
Composition	Arrangement, alternation, correlation and interrelation of parts of a literary work, serving the most complete embodiment of the artist's intention, techniques that create a general picture of the work. Essence compositional techniques is to create some complex unity, complex integer	M. Yu. Lermontov "The Hero of Our Time": the arrangement of the short stories that make up the novel in this order reveals the author's intention - a gradual deepening into the psychology of the hero, a change in the "angle" of the image
Conflict	A figurative reflection in a work of art of the struggle of interests, passions, ideas, characters, political aspirations (both personal and public). Conflict spices up the plot	M. Yu. Lermontov "The Hero of Our Time": the conflict in the work is the contradiction between the aspirations of the hero and his actions, between the hero and society, the hero and the values ​​\u200b\u200baccepted in society, as well as the norms of behavior and understanding of the meaning and purpose of life

Stages of action development

	Wording
exposition	Part of the plot immediately preceding the plot, presenting the reader with initial information about the circumstances in which the conflict of a literary work arose	W. Shakespeare "Romeo and Juliet" - the first scenes of the play depicting the enmity of the Montague and Capulet families
	An event that determines the occurrence of a conflict in a literary work. Sometimes it coincides with the beginning of the work	W. Shakespeare "Romeo and Juliet" - a celebration scene in the Capulet house, the meeting of Romeo and Juliet
Culmina	In a literary work, a scene, event, episode where the collision reaches its highest tension and occurs showdown between the characters and the aspirations of the characters, after which the plot begins the transition to the denouement	W. Shakespeare "Romeo and Juliet" - the duel of Romeo and Tybalt, the death of Mercutio, Tybalt, and then Romeo and Juliet
denouement	The final part of the development of a conflict or intrigue, where it is resolved, comes to a logical figurative conclusion, the conflict of the work	W. Shakespeare "Romeo and Juliet" - discovery by brother Lorenzo fallen heroes, revealing the truth for the heroes' parents, the Montecchi and Capulet families
		W. Shakespeare "Romeo and Juliet" - the speech of the Duke of Verona over the coffin of heroes, the condemnation of the enmity of families that led to the death of their children

End of table

The system of images in the work

	Wording
	This is not a simple subject of speech, most often it is not even named in the structure of a work of art. This is the embodiment of the essence of the work, uniting the entire system of speech structures of characters in their relationship with the narrator, narrator or narrators and through them being the ideological and stylistic center, the focus of the whole.
Literary hero	Character, actor literary work
Lyrical hero	The image of the poet (his lyrical "I"), whose experiences, thoughts and feelings are reflected in the lyrical work. The lyrical hero is not identical to the biographical personality. Picture of lyrical hero is of a summary nature and is formed in the process of familiarization with the inner world that is revealed in lyrical works not through actions, but through experiences, states of mind, manner of speech expression
literary character	The totality of character traits literary hero, wherein individual characteristics serve as a reflection of the typical, conditioned both by the phenomenon that makes up the content of the work, and by the ideological and aesthetic intention of the author who created this character. Character is one of the main components of a literary work.
Art	Main in artistic creativity a way of perceiving and reflecting reality, a form of knowledge of life specific to art and the expression of this knowledge; the purpose and result of the search, and then the identification, highlighting, underlining artistic techniques those features of a phenomenon that most fully reveal its aesthetic, moral, socially significant essence

literary trendsandcurrents

XVII-Х1Х CENTURY

Classicism - a direction in the literature of the 17th - early 19th centuries, guided by the aesthetic standards of ancient art. The main idea is the assertion of the priority of reason. Aesthetics is based on the principle of rationalism: a work of art must be reasonably constructed, logically verified, must capture the enduring, essential properties of things. The works of classicism are characterized by high civic themes, strict observance of certain creative norms and rules, reflection of life in ideal images gravitating towards the universal model. (G. Derzhavin, I. Krylov, M. Lomonosov, V. Trediakovsky,D. Fonvizin).

Sentimentalism - the literary movement of the second half of the 18th century, which approved feeling, and not reason, as the dominant of the human personality. The hero of sentimentalism is a “feeling person”, his emotional world is diverse and mobile, and the wealth of the inner world is recognized for every person, regardless of his class affiliation. (I. M. Karamzin."Letters from a Russian Traveler", "Poor Liza" ) .

Romanticism - literary movement that emerged at the beginning of the 19th century. The fundamental principle for romanticism was the principle of romantic duality, which implies a sharp opposition of the hero, his ideal, to the world around him. The incompatibility of the ideal and reality was expressed in the departure of romantics from modern topics into the world of history, traditions and legends, dreams, dreams, fantasies, exotic countries. Romanticism has a particular interest in the individual. The romantic hero is characterized by proud loneliness, disappointment, a tragic attitude and at the same time rebelliousness and rebellious spirit. (A. S. Pushkin."KavKazakh prisoner, « Gypsies»; M. Yu. Lermontov.« Mtsyri»; M. Gorky.« Song about the Falcon”, “Old Woman Izergil”).

Realism - a literary trend that established itself in Russian literature at the beginning of the 19th century and passed through the entire 20th century. Realism affirms the priority of the cognitive possibilities of literature, its ability to explore reality. The most important subject of artistic research is the relationship between character and circumstances, the formation of characters under the influence of the environment. Human behavior, according to realist writers, depends on external circumstances, which, however, does not negate his ability to oppose them with his will. This determined the central conflict - the conflict of personality and circumstances. Realist writers depict reality in development, in dynamics, presenting stable, typical phenomena in their uniquely individual incarnation. (A. S. Pushkin."Eugene Onegin"; novels I. S. Turgeneva, L. N. Tolstogo, F. M. Dostoevsky, A. M. Gorky,stories I. A. Bunina,A. I. Kuprin; N. A. Nekrasovand etc.).

Critical Realism - the literary direction, which is a child of the previous one, existed from the beginning of the 19th century to its end. It bears the main signs of realism, but differs in a deeper, critical, sometimes sarcastic author's look ( N. V. Gogol"Dead Souls"; Saltykov-Shchedrin)

XXCENTURY

Modernism - the literary movement of the first half of the 20th century, which opposed itself to realism and united many movements and schools with a very diverse aesthetic orientation. Instead of a rigid connection between characters and circumstances, modernism affirms the self-worth and self-sufficiency of the human personality, its irreducibility to a tiresome series of causes and effects.

avant-garde - a trend in literature and art of the 20th century, uniting various trends, united in their aesthetic radicalism (surrealism, drama of the absurd, " new novel", in Russian literature -futurism). Genetically connected with modernism, but absolutizes and takes its desire for artistic renewal to the extreme.

Decadence (decadence) - a certain state of mind, a crisis type of consciousness, expressed in a feeling of despair, impotence, mental fatigue with the obligatory elements of narcissism and aestheticization of self-destruction of the individual. Decadent-in-the-mood works aestheticize fading away, a break with traditional morality, and the will to die. The decadent attitude was reflected in the works of writers of the late 19th - early 20th centuries. F. Sologuba, 3. Gippius, L. Andreeva, and etc.

Symbolism - pan-European, and in Russian literature - the first and most significant modernist trend. The roots of symbolism are connected with romanticism, with the idea of ​​two worlds. The traditional idea of ​​knowing the world in art was opposed by the Symbolists to the idea of ​​constructing the world in the process of creativity. The meaning of creativity is subconscious-intuitive contemplation secret meanings available only to the artist-creator. The main means of transmitting rationally unknowable secret meanings is the symbol (signs) ("senior symbolists": V. Bryusov, K. Balmont, D. Merezhkovsky, 3. Gippius, F. Sologub;"young symbolists": A. Block,A. Bely, V. Ivanov, dramas by L. Andreev).

Acmeism - a current of Russian modernism that arose as a reaction to the extremes of symbolism with its persistent tendency to perceive reality as a distorted likeness of higher entities. The main significance in the work of acmeists is the artistic development of the diverse and bright earthly world, the transfer of the inner world of a person, the assertion of culture as highest value. Acmeistic poetry is characterized by stylistic balance, pictorial clarity of images, precisely adjusted composition, and sharpness of details. (N. Gumilyov, S. Gorodetscue, A. Akhmatova, O. Mandelstam, M. Zenkevich, V. Narbut).

Futurism - an avant-garde movement that arose almost simultaneously in Italy and Russia. The main feature is the preaching of the overthrow of past traditions, the crushing of the old aesthetics, the desire to create a new art, the art of the future, capable of transforming the world. Main technical principle- the principle of "shift", manifested in lexical updating poetic language by introducing into it vulgarisms, technical terms, neologisms, in violation of laws lexical compatibility words, in bold experiments in the field of syntax and word formation (V. Khlebnikov, V. Mayakovsky, I. Severyanin and etc.).

Expressionism - modernist trend that was formed in 1910 - 1920s in Germany. Expressionists sought not so much to depict the world as to express their thoughts about the troubles of the world and the suppression of the human personality. The style of expressionism is determined by the rationalism of constructions, a tendency to abstractness, the sharp emotionality of the statements of the author and characters, and the abundant use of fantasy and the grotesque. In Russian literature, the influence of expressionism manifested itself in the work of L. Andreeva, E. Zamyatina, A. Platone and etc.

Postmodernism - a complex set of worldview attitudes and cultural reactions in the era of ideological and aesthetic pluralism (the end of the 20th century). Postmodern thinking is fundamentally anti-hierarchical, opposes the idea of ​​worldview integrity, rejects the possibility of mastering reality with the help of a single method or language of description. Writers - postmodernists consider literature, first of all, a fact of language, and therefore do not hide, but emphasize the "literary" nature of their works, combine in one text the style of different genres and different literary epochs (A. Bitov, Sasha Sokolov, D. A. Prigov, V. PeLevin, Wen. Erofeev and etc.).