SIBERIAN UNIVERSITY OF CONSUMER COOPERATION

ZABAIKALSKY INSTITUTE OF ENTREPRENEURSHIP

Department of Humanitarian Disciplines

TEST

ON CULTURE .

Topic 23. Culture of Russia in the 19th - early 20th centuries

Performed:

Ivanenko Elena Vladimirovna EK-10004ch

Checked:

CHITA 2010

Plan:

1. Introduction.

The end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century was marked by a deep crisis that engulfed the entire European culture, which was the result of disappointment in the old ideals and a sense of the approaching death of the existing social political system.

But the same crisis has created great era- the era of the Russian cultural renaissance at the beginning of the century - one of “the most refined eras in the history of Russian culture. This was the era of the creative upsurge of poetry and philosophy after a period of decline. It was at the same time the era of the emergence of new souls, a new sensitivity. Souls opened up to all sorts of mystical influences, both positive and negative. Never before have all sorts of delusions and confusions been so strong among us. At the same time, forebodings of impending catastrophes seized the Russian souls. The poets saw not only the coming dawns, but something terrible approaching Russia and the world...

During these years, many gifts were sent to Russia. This was the era of the awakening of independent philosophical thought in Russia, the flowering of poetry and the sharpening of aesthetic sensitivity, religious anxiety and quest, interest in mysticism and the occult. New souls appeared, new springs were discovered creative life, saw new dawns, combined the feelings of sunset and death with the feeling of sunrise and with the hope of the transformation of life.

In the era of the cultural renaissance, there was, as it were, an "explosion" in all areas of culture: not only in poetry, but also in music; not only in fine arts, but also in the theater ... Russia of that time gave the world great amount new names, ideas, masterpieces. Magazines were published, various circles and societies were created, debates and discussions were held, new trends arose in all areas of culture.

In order to see this, we can consider the dynamics of development culture XIX and the 20th century.

2. What is culture in XIX - XX Century in Russia?

The variety of philosophical and scientific definitions cultures do not allow us to refer to this concept as the most obvious designation of an object and subject of culture, and requires its clearer and narrower specification.

For example, Nikolai Alexandrovich Berdyaev said, “Culture is associated with a cult, it is from religious cult develops, it is the result of the differentiation of the cult, the unfolding of its content in different sides. philosophical thought, scientific knowledge, architecture, painting, sculpture, music, poetry, morality - everything is contained organically integrally in the church cult, in a form not yet developed and differentiated. The oldest of the Cultures - the Culture of Egypt began in the temple, and its first creators were the priests. Culture is connected with the cult of ancestors, with legend and tradition. It is full of sacred symbolism, it contains signs and similarities of a different, spiritual reality. Every culture (even material culture) there is a Culture of the spirit, any Culture has a spiritual basis - it is a product creative work spirit over the natural elements.

Expanded and deepened the interpretation of the word culture, his contemporary, Russian artist, philosopher, publicist, archaeologist, traveler and public figure- Nicholas Roerich (1874-1947), who dedicated most his life to the development, dissemination and protection of culture. He repeatedly called Culture “veneration of the Light”, and in the article “Synthesis” he even split the lexeme into parts: “Cult” and “Ur”: “The cult will always remain the veneration of the Good Beginning, and the word Ur reminds us of the old eastern root denoting Light, Fire."

In the same article, he writes: “... Now I would like to clarify the definition of two concepts that we have to deal with daily in our everyday life. Significantly, one has to repeat the concept of Culture and civilization. Surprisingly, one has to notice that even these concepts, seemingly so refined by their roots, are already subject to reinterpretation and distortion. For example, until now, many people believe it is quite possible to replace the word Culture with civilization. At the same time, it is completely overlooked that the Latin root Cult itself has a very deep spiritual meaning, while civilization at its root has a civic, social structure of life. It would seem quite clear that each country goes through a stage of sociality, that is, a civilization that, in a high synthesis, creates an eternal, indestructible concept of Culture. As we see from many examples, a civilization can perish, can be completely destroyed, but Culture in indestructible spiritual tablets creates a great heritage that nourishes the future young growth.

Every manufacturer of standard products, every manufacturer, of course, is already civilized man, but no one will insist that every factory owner already has man of culture. And it may very well turn out that the lowest factory worker can be the bearer of undoubted Culture, while its owner will find himself only within the boundaries of civilization. One can easily imagine the "House of Culture", but it will sound very awkward: "House of Civilization". The name “cultural worker” sounds quite definitive, but it will mean something completely different - “civilized worker”. Every university professor will be quite satisfied with the title of a cultural worker, but try to tell a venerable professor that he is a civilized worker; for such a nickname, every scientist, every creator will feel inner awkwardness, if not resentment. We know the expressions "civilization of Greece", "civilization of Egypt", "civilization of France", but they do not in the least exclude the following expression, the highest in its inviolability, when we speak of the great The culture of Egypt, Greece, Rome, France ... ".
Andrei Bely (1880-1934) - Russian writer, poet, critic, versifier, one of the leading figures of Russian symbolism of the twentieth century, seriously tried to comprehend culture as a category. He recorded the emergence in society of "the problem of culture in the proper sense." Opening the first collection of his theoretical works "Symbolism" (M., 1910) with the article "The Problem of Culture", he wrote: "The question of what culture is is a question of our days." According to the poet-thinker, "the resolution of this issue cannot but re-evaluate the formulation of questions of philosophy, art, history and religion." In his report "Ways of Culture" he notes:

“The concept of 'culture' is unusually complex; it is easier to define the concept of "science", "art", "everyday life"; culture - wholeness, organic compound many parties human activity; the problems of culture in the proper sense arise already when life, art, science, personality and society are organized; culture is a style of life, and in this style it is the creativity of life itself, but not unconscious, but conscious; culture is determined by the growth of human self-consciousness; it is a story about the growth of our "I"; it is individual and universal at the same time; it presupposes the intersection of the individual and the universe; this intersection is our "I"; the only intuition given to us; culture is always the culture of some kind of "I".

Personally, the opinion of A. Bely is closer to me. Since I believe that every person should develop culture, and first of all within himself, and only then try to carry it to the masses.

3. The development of culture in Russia in XIX - XX century.

19th century became for the culture of Russia a period of its unprecedented rise. Patriotic War 1812, having stirred up the whole life of Russian society, accelerated the formation of national self-consciousness. On the one hand, she again brought Russia closer to the West, and on the other hand, accelerated the formation of Russian culture as one of the European cultures, closely connected with Western European trends public thought and artistic culture, and exerting its own influence on it.

Western philosophical and political teachings assimilated Russian society in relation to Russian reality. The memory of French Revolution. Revolutionary romanticism, brought to Russian soil, caused close attention to the problems of the state and social structure, the question of serfdom, etc. key role in the ideological disputes of the XIX century. played the question of the historical path of Russia and its relationship with Europe and Western European culture. This question was first asked by P.A. Chaadaev, later he led to the ideological delimitation of Westerners and Slavophiles among the Russian intelligentsia. Westerners (T.M. Granovsky, S.M. Solovyov, B.N. Chicherin, K.D. Kavelin) perceived Russia as part of European society and advocated the development of the country along the European path, for liberal reforms in social and political structure. Slavophiles (A.S. Khomyakov, K.S. and I.S. Aksakovs, P.V. and I.V. Kireevsky, Yu.F. Samarin) were in more difficult attitude to European culture. They were brought up on German classical philosophy, in particular on the philosophy of Hegel with his idea of ​​a national spirit. Based on this premise, the Slavophiles emphasized the original path of development of Russia, different from the Western one, pointed to national character cultures fought against an uncritical attitude towards foreign influences (A.S. Khomyakov).

starting from the 40s. under the influence of Western utopian socialism, revolutionary democracy begins to develop in Russia.

All these phenomena in the social thought of the country largely determined the development of the artistic culture of Russia in the 19th century, and above all, its close attention to social problems, publicity.

19th century rightly called the "golden age" of Russian literature, the era when Russian literature not only acquires originality, but, in turn, has a serious impact on world culture.

First decade XIX in. in literature, there is a noticeable departure from the educational ideology, a predominant attention to the person and his inner world, feelings. These changes were associated with the spread of the aesthetics of romanticism, which involved the creation of a generalized ideal image, opposed to reality, the assertion of a strong, free personality, neglecting the conventions of society. Often the ideal was seen in the past, which caused an increased interest in national history. The emergence of romanticism in Russian literature is associated with the ballads and elegies of V.A. Zhukovsky; the works of the Decembrist poets, as well as the early works of A.S. Pushkin brought to him the ideals of the struggle for the "oppressed freedom of man", the spiritual liberation of the individual. The Romantic movement laid the foundations of the Russian historical novel (A.A. Bestuzhev-Marlinsky, M.N. Zagoskin), as well as the tradition of literary translation. Romantic poets first introduced the Russian reader to the works of Western European and ancient authors. V.A. Zhukovsky was a translator of the works of Homer, Byron, Schiller. We still read the Iliad translated by N.I. Gnedich.

In 1830-50s. The development of literature was associated with a gradual movement from romanticism to realism, the correlation depicted in a literary work with " life truth". This transitional period was one of the periods of the rise of Russian literature, marked by the work of A.S. Pushkin, the creator of the norms of modern Russian literary language classic examples of all literary genres: lyrical and epic poetry, novel, story and short story, as well as M.Yu. Lermontov and N.V. Gogol.

Critical realism, which formed in Russian literature, was distinguished by an increased interest in social issues associated with acute conflicts in Russian society. This was especially characteristic of the authors of the "natural school" - I.A. Goncharova, N.A. Nekrasov, early works I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, A.N. Ostrovsky. One of the features of the natural school was attention to fate " little man"(Gogol, Dostoevsky, Nekrasov), the life of a serf (essays by V.I. Dahl, "Notes of a Hunter" by I.S. Turgenev), the world of Russian merchants (A.N. Ostrovsky).

In the post-reform era of the 1860-70s. these trends continued, and literary works that era reflected the ideological conflicts of the time. At this time, the heyday of the Russian classical novel falls. At this time they create their the best works I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy. In their writings, the attention to critical realism characteristic of social conflicts enriched, and sometimes relegated to the background, by deep psychologism and philosophical generalizations concerning the fate of Russia and Western culture, their relationship, the search for spiritual support in Christianity (Orthodoxy or its own interpretation, like Tolstoy). Being the pinnacle of achievements of the Russian literature XIX century, these works also influenced the development of world culture, becoming its integral part.

End of the 19th century witnessed the "theatrical revolution" of K.S. Stanislavsky and V.I. Nemirovich-Danchenko, who created the Moscow Art Theater in 1898. The essence of the "revolution" was the rejection of the system of the manner of the game, false pathos, recitation, conventions of staging. The Moscow Art Theater organically combined best traditions Russian theater of the 19th century and new ideas that implied the creation of an acting ensemble, increased requirements for penetration into the psychology of the characters.

In the first half of the XIX century. the birth of a national music school. In the first decades of the XIX century. dominated by romantic tendencies, manifested in the work of A.N. Verstovsky, who used historical subjects in his work. The founder of the Russian musical school was M.I. Glinka, the creator of the main musical genres: operas ("Ivan Susanin", "Ruslan and Lyudmila"), symphonies, romance, who actively used folklore motifs in his work. An innovator in the field of music was A.S. Dargomyzhsky, author of the opera-ballet "The Triumph of Bacchus" and the creator of recitative in the opera. His music was closely connected with the work of the composers of the "Mighty Handful" - M.P. Mussorgsky, M.A. Balakireva, N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov, A.P. Borodin, Ts.A. Cui, who strove to embody in their works "life, wherever it may affect", who actively turned to historical plots and folklore motifs. Their work established the genre of musical drama. "Boris Godunov" and "Khovanshchina" by Mussorgsky, "Prince Igor" by Borodin, "The Snow Maiden" and " royal bride"Rimsky-Korsakov are the pride of Russian and world art.

Special place in Russian music takes P.I. Tchaikovsky, who embodied in his works the inner drama and attention to the inner world of a person, characteristic of Russian literature of the 19th century, to which the composer often turned (operas "Eugene Onegin", " Queen of Spades", "Mazepa").

In the first half of the XIX century. classical ballet and French choreographers (A. Blache, A. Tityus) dominated. The second half of the century is the time of the birth of classical Russian ballet. Its pinnacle was the production of ballets by P.I. Tchaikovsky (" Swan Lake"," Sleeping Beauty ") by the St. Petersburg choreographer M. I. Petipa.

The influence of romanticism in painting manifested itself primarily in the portrait. The works of O.A. Kiprensky and V.A. Tropinin, far from civic pathos, asserted the naturalness and freedom of human feelings. The idea of ​​the romantics about a person as a hero of a historical drama was embodied in the canvases of K.P. Bryullov ("The Last Day of Pompeii"), A.A. Ivanov "The Appearance of Christ to the People"). The attention to national, folk motives characteristic of romanticism manifested itself in the images peasant life created by A.G. Venetsianov and painters of his school. The art of landscape is also experiencing a rise (S.F. Shchedrin, M.I. Lebedev, Ivanov). To mid-nineteenth in. genre painting comes to the fore. Canvases by P.A. Fedotov, addressed to events in the life of peasants, soldiers, petty officials, demonstrate attention to social problems, a close connection between painting and literature.

The turn of the 19th - 20th centuries is the period of a new take-off of Russian culture. This is the time of rethinking the traditions and values ​​of Russian and world culture of the 19th century. It is filled with religious and philosophical quests, rethinking the role creative activity artist, its genres and forms. During this period, the thinking of artists is freed from politicization, the unconscious, irrational in man, boundless subjectivism comes to the fore. " silver Age"became a time of artistic discoveries and new directions.

Since the 90s. in the literature, a direction called symbolism begins to take shape (K.D. Balmont, D.S. Merezhkovsky, Z.N. Gippius, V.Ya. Bryusov, F.K. Sollogub, A. Bely, A.A. Blok). Rebelling against critical realism, the symbolists put forward the principle of intuitive comprehension of the spiritual basis of being, attention to symbols (through which it is revealed). The new principles of the work of the Symbolists were the versatility, and consequently, the ambiguity and understatement of the images, the vagueness and indefinite main idea of ​​the work. On the other hand, symbolism enriched means of expression poetic language, formed an idea of ​​the intuitive nature of art. The work of the Symbolists was greatly influenced by the philosophy of Nietzsche and Schopenhauer. Already by 1909, symbolism as a trend was practically disintegrating.

The trend of acmeism that arose in 1912 (N.S. Gumilyov, S.M. Gorodetsky, A.A. Akhmatova, O.E. Mandelstam, M.A. Kuzmin), in contrast to irrational symbolism, demanded clarity and harmony from art , asserted the intrinsic value of the phenomena of life and the ideal " strong personality in its Nietzschean interpretation.

Another influential trend in literature and aesthetics was futurism (D.D. Burliuk, V.V. Khlebnikov, V.V. Mayakovsky, A. Kruchenykh). The Futurists proclaimed the rejection of traditions, they perceived the word not as a means, but as an independent organism, developing thanks to the activity of the poet and having no connection with reality.

Along with new trends, traditional realism continued to develop (A.P. Chekhov, A.I. Kuprin, I.A. Bunin).

At the beginning of the 20th century Russian avant-garde (V. Kandinsky, K. Malevich, P. Filonov, M. Chagall) becomes a noticeable phenomenon not only in Russian, but also in world culture. One of the goals of the avant-garde was to create a new art that would reveal the realm of the impulsive and the subconscious. K. Malevich was one of the theorists of Suprematism, who argued (under the influence of the ideas of Schopenhauer and A. Bergson) that the world is based on some kind of excitement, "anxiety" that controls the states of nature and the artist himself. It was this "excitation" that the artist had to comprehend in his own inner world and convey with the help of painting (without giving it any substantive expression).

In Russian painting at the beginning of the 20th century. the influence of impressionism is also noticeable (V. Serov, K. Korovin, I. Grabar).

The theater did not remain aloof from the influence of symbolism. The search for a new stage art gave Russian and world culture the conventional theater of V.E. Meyerhold (Komissarzhevskaya Theatre, Alexandrinsky Theatre), Chamber Theater A.Ya. Tairov, E. Vakhtangov Studio.

In the music of the modern era, which was influenced by late romanticism, attention was paid to the inner experiences of a person, his emotions, lyricism and refinement, characteristic of the works of S.I. Taneeva, A.N. Scriabin, A.K. Glazunova, S.V. Rachmaninov.

In the era of modernity, cinema takes its place in Russian culture. The first screenings took place in 1896, and by 1914 there were already about 30 firms operating in Russia that released more than 300 films. In the cinema of the early 20th century. psychological realism, traditional Russian literature (The Queen of Spades", "Father Sergius" by Ya.P. Protazanov). Silent film stars were V. V. Kholodnaya, I. I. Mozzhukhin.

Russian art culture early 20th century was more than ever open to the West, sensitively reacting to new trends in philosophy and aesthetics and at the same time opening up to European society. The "Russian Seasons" in Paris, organized by Diaghilev, played a huge role here. Since 1906 S. Diaghilev acquainted the Parisian society with the achievements of Russian artistic culture by organizing an exhibition dedicated to the history of Russian art, Russian music (from Glinka to Rachmaninov) - by organizing concerts and staging opera performances with the best Russian conductors and singers (Chaliapin, Sobinov, etc.) . The seasons of Russian ballet began in 1909, which opened for both Russia and Europe the productions of M. Fokine ("The Firebird" and "Petrushka" by I.F. Stravinsky), in which A. Pavlova, T. Karsavina, V Nijinsky, M. Mordkin, S. Fedorova. The Russian seasons of Diaghilev actually revived the ballet theater of Western Europe.

Because the 20th century - an age of rapidly changing social systems, dynamic cultural processes, it is very risky to give unambiguous assessments of the development of the culture of this period, and only some characteristic features can be distinguished.

In the history of culture of the XX century. three periods can be distinguished:

1) the beginning of the 20th century - 1917 (acute dynamics of socio-political processes, diversity art forms, styles, philosophical concepts);

2) 20-30 years. (radical restructuring, some stabilization of cultural dynamics, education new form culture - socialist),

3) post-war 40s. throughout the second half of the 20th century. (formation time regional cultures, the rise of national consciousness, the emergence of international movements, rapid development technology, the emergence of new advanced technologies, active development of territories, fusion of science with production, change scientific paradigms, the formation of a new worldview). Culture is a system, everything in it is interconnected and mutually determined.

In the 1920s, the systematic implementation of the cultural policy of the party began, in which any philosophical or other system of ideas that went beyond the limits of Marxism in its Leninist version was qualified as "bourgeois", "landlord", "clerical" and recognized as counter-revolutionary and anti-Soviet, that is, dangerous for the very existence of the new political system. Ideological intolerance has become the basis of official policy Soviet power in the field of ideology and culture.

In the minds of the bulk of the population, the establishment of a narrow class approach to culture began. Class suspicion of the old spiritual culture and anti-intellectual sentiments spread widely in society. Slogans were constantly spread about distrust of education, about the need for a "vigilant" attitude towards old specialists, who were regarded as an anti-people force. This principle is still more and in a rigid form extended to the work of representatives of the intelligentsia. A political monopolism is being established in science, art, philosophy, in all spheres of the spiritual life of society, the persecution of representatives of the so-called noble and bourgeois intelligentsia. The expulsion of hundreds of thousands of educated people from the country caused irreparable damage to the elite culture, led to an inevitable decline in its general level. But the proletarian state was extremely suspicious of the intelligentsia that remained in the country. Step by step, the institutions of professional autonomy of the intelligentsia were liquidated - independent publications, creative unions, trade unions. The study of "unconscious" intellectuals, and then the arrests of many of them, became the practice of the 1920s. Ultimately, this ended with the complete defeat of the main body of the old intelligentsia in Russia.

The reforms that began after Stalin's death created more favorable conditions for the development of culture. The exposure of the personality cult at the 20th Party Congress in 1956, the return from prisons and exile of hundreds of thousands of the repressed, including representatives of the creative intelligentsia, the weakening of the censorship press, the development of ties with foreign countries- all this expanded the spectrum of freedom, caused among the population, especially young people, utopian dreams of a better life. The time from the mid-1950s to the mid-1960s (from the appearance in 1954 of I. Ehrenburg's story called "The Thaw" to the opening of the trial of A. Sinyavsky and Yu. Daniel in February 1966) entered the history of the USSR under the name "thaw".

The beginning of the 90s was marked by the accelerated disintegration of the single culture of the USSR into separate national cultures, which not only rejected the values common culture USSR, but cultural traditions each other. Such a sharp opposition of different national cultures led to an increase in socio-cultural tension, to the emergence of military conflicts, and subsequently caused the collapse of a single socio-cultural space.

But processes cultural development not interrupted by decay state structures and fall political regimes. culture new Russia, is organically connected with all previous periods of the country's history. However, the new political and economic situation could not but affect the culture. Her relationship with the authorities has changed radically. The state has ceased to dictate its requirements to culture, and culture has lost a guaranteed customer.

4. Famous cultural figures in Russia XIX - XX century.

Russian culture perceived best achievements cultures of other countries and peoples, without losing their identity and, in turn, influencing the development of other cultures. Left a mark on history European nations, for example, religious Russian thought. Russian philosophy and theology influenced Western European culture in the first half of the 20th century. thanks to the works of V. Solovyov, S. Bulgakov, P. Florensky, N. Berdyaev, M. Bakunin and many others. Finally, the most important factor, which gave a strong impetus to the development of Russian culture, was the "thunderstorm of the twelfth year." The rise of "patriotism in connection with the Patriotic War of 1812 contributed not only to the growth of national self-consciousness and the formation of Decembrism, but also to the development of Russian national culture, V. Belinsky wrote: "The year 1812, having shaken the whole of Russia, aroused the people's consciousness and people's pride." The cultural and historical process in Russia in the 19th - early 20th century has its own characteristics.

The intelligentsia, originally made up of educated people of two privileged classes - the clergy and the nobility, is increasingly actively involved in the formation of Russian national culture. In the first half of the XVIII century. raznochintsy intellectuals appear, and in the second half of this century a special social group- serf intelligentsia (actors, painters, architects, musicians, poets). If in the XVIII - first half of the XIX century. the leading role in culture belongs to the noble intelligentsia, then in the second half of the XIX century. - raznochintsy. The composition of the raznochintsy intelligentsia (especially after the abolition of serfdom) comes from peasants. In general, raznochintsy included educated representatives of the liberal and democratic bourgeoisie, who did not belong to the nobility, but to the bureaucracy, the bourgeoisie, the merchant class and the peasantry. This explains such important feature culture of Russia in the 19th century, as the beginning of the process of its democratization. It also manifests itself. that cultural figures are gradually becoming not only representatives of the privileged classes, although they continue to occupy a leading position. The number of writers, poets, artists, composers, scientists from the unprivileged classes, in particular from the serfs, but mainly from among the raznochintsy, is increasing.

In the 19th century Literature is becoming the leading area of ​​Russian culture, which was facilitated primarily by its close connection with progressive liberation ideology. Pushkin's ode "Liberty", his "Message to Siberia" to the Decembrists and "Answer" to this message of the Decembrist Odoevsky, Ryleev's satire "To a temporary worker" (Arakcheev), Lermontov's poem "On the Death of a Poet", Belinsky's letter to Gogol were, in fact, , political pamphlets, militant, revolutionary appeals that inspired the progressive youth. The spirit of opposition and struggle inherent in the works of progressive Russian writers made Russian literature of that time one of the active social forces.

One of the most famous figures culture of the nineteenth century is Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin.

The first Russian national poet, the ancestor of all subsequent Russian literature, the beginning of all its beginnings - such is the rightly and accurately recognized place and significance of Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin in the development domestic art the words. Pushkin also for the first time - at the highest aesthetic level he achieved, raised his creations to the advanced level of enlightenment of the century, the European spiritual life of the 19th century, and thereby rightfully introduced Russian literature as another and most significant national-original literature into the family of the most developed Western literatures by that time. .

Pushkin's great discovery was the assimilation of reality in all its diversity as a source and material. poetic creativity. They say that Pushkin opened a window on the world in literature. No, this window was opened in Russian poetry before him. He also destroyed all partitions, all mediastinums that separated poetry from life; there has been nothing since then in the world, in society, in nature, in life human soul that wouldn't become a piece of art. He also discovered the method of poetic creativity, which allowed the poet not to be an "echo", repeating every sound (there is nothing more wrong than such a flat understanding of Pushkin's deep and inspired declaration). The sphere of poetry under Pushkin became the most essential thing in human life - civil and patriotic deed, dreams, grief of the people, lyrics of nature and love. Everything was illuminated by the poet with a great thought. That is why Pushkin's poetry is perceived by us as an integral unity of life, as a unique and grandiose artistic picture of the world.

Pushkin's poetry reflected all the "impressions of life". It echoed his heroic and tragic time, reflections of the battles of the national liberation war, the aspirations of the rebels on Senate Square. Spirit European revolutions, peasant riots - the word era

The current approach to interpreting the poet's image takes into account the entire experience of studying and interpreting his personality and heritage. Moreover, this experience is not limited to our country. Research into international perceptions and interpretations of Pushkin is expanding. Western scientists, biographers and readers of the poet are increasingly attracted by the features of Pushkin's historical thinking, philosophical motives his creativity, the inexhaustibility of genius, his amazing proteism. Despite the unambiguity and controversy of a number of interpretations offered by Western researchers and commentators on creativity, they are attracted by the mystery of Pushkin's spirit. Attention to the artistic heritage, to individual works is combined with an increasingly obvious inclination to comprehend the poet as a person. In the uniqueness of genius western world reveals the features of the Russian character, an example of creative and moral perfection.

"... for two centuries Pushkin did not become the past, yesterday's poet, did not turn into" literary heritage"According to the definition of Yu. M. Lotman, Pushkin retains the properties of a living interlocutor: he answers the questions of those who come into contact with him. Truly great artists, the scientist notes, are like the shadows of Hamlet's father: they "go ahead and call for themselves. Pushkin is always the way a new generation of readers needs him, but is not limited to this, remains something more, having its own secrets, something mysterious and inviting.

Pushkin lived and worked in the 19th century, and in the 20th century there were some of the most distinguished authors, for example, Mikhail Aleksandrovich Sholokhov.

The literary world of M. Sholokhov, exterminated by "democratic critics" as a crime of "notorious socialist realism", is much richer than the socialist ideology, and more than it.

The attitude towards Sholokhov and Soviet literature was largely determined by the popular opinion that in the new Russia the very soil that gives rise to great artists has been knocked out, and under the Bolshevik government only “the offspring of Demyan Bedny, the “leading figure of proletarian culture””, faceless mediocrity, adapting and degrading belles-lettres to propaganda ideas and primitive lubok agitation. “An unfortunate country ... unable to single out, if not Tolstoy and Turgenev, then at least honest people who dare to have their own opinion, - complained E. Kuskova. - Even them great writer Sholokhov refuses to have it. Herd. Still the October herd... What a grief. And what a shame for a great country...”

The name of Sholokhov, who rose from the bottom and personified the bottom, with his people's Russia, “by definition” deprived not only of the skills of a democratic life and free thinking, but also of all signs and rudiments of culture, becomes a landmark in the circles of the emigrant political and artistic elite. His arrival is too felt by everyone and everyone, but not as a benefit for oneself, but as an inconvenience and even a threat to one's own existence, for the "Quiet Flows the Don" is not only a deep doubt in the inviolability of the existing hierarchy of social preferences and priorities, but also their resolute real revision. And therefore, Sholokhov should either be hushed up, or talk about him casually and casually, as if it were an annoying hindrance, unworthy of close attention, or, finally, try to disavow his appearance by referring to an error " visual perception” is not the one for whom we take him, for where he came from, he cannot be. “... Is it possible to expect such a masterpiece from a simple Cossack who spent his youth in the village, and even in the period civil war”, - a certain I.S.G. asked the white light with pathos, not doubting the answer. “A secondary combat unit” of our tragic era, Y. Terapiano said with the confidence of mutual responsibility about Sholokhov.

In 1965, Sholokhov was awarded the Nobel Prize, but in Soviet Russia he never received recognition. It was said that Sholokhov "in no way" could represent the Russian intelligentsia, the people and Russia before the "face" of the Nobel Committee and the Foundation. Moreover, as they said, global community” “Frontiers”, author “ Quiet Don” “attaches itself to the greatness and nobility of the Russian people” and thereby “dishonors both its greatness and its nobility”, and, of course, for this reason, the “modern Russian intelligentsia” “will never forgive Western culture awards Nobel Prize Sholokhov...”

5. Culture of modern Russia

What is happening with culture today, what problems and difficulties does it experience? Who is her glory and pride? There is an opinion that "it was in the era of the USSR - the era of lack of freedom, we had Brodsky - the Nobel Prize winner, there were Pasternak, Sholokhov." In an interview with AIF journalists (No. 6, 2004), the famous film director Andrei Konchalovsky expressed his opinion, paradoxical and controversial: "Culture is not Brodsky and Pushkin. Culture is how you go to the toilet: Brodsky, Pushkin and others they have nothing to do with deep Russian culture - it is only a surface, a thin cloak.Unfortunately, the decline of Russian culture is due to the fact that the abundance of information is slowly eating away spiritual experience humanity. Experience is not added, but disappears: Today, even if it appears great poet, no one will hear it. The role of poetry is over. Today, the cinema is over, art has lost its prestige, its appeal to the masses.

For example, I also cannot say exactly what our Russian culture is now expressing ... Television, cinema, literature - if you treat them as culture, it turns out that Russians can express themselves in drunkenness, the so-called "national idea", prostitution, corruption, etc. And I would like to talk about Russia as a great power in culture, as in the "golden" and "silver" centuries of Russian culture.

Bibliography:

1. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture

2. www.russianculture.ru/fulle.asp?id=11 “Culture of Russia. XIX century (1801 - 1914). Period: 1801 - 1914"

3. www.countries.ru/library/twenty/general.htm Culturology for technical universities. Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix, 2001.

4. History of Russian literature of the XIX century. In 2 vols. - M., 1962.

5. Koshman L.V. History of Russian culture of the 19th - early 20th centuries. - M., 1971.

6. Essays on the history of Russian culture of the second half of XIX in. - M., 1976.

Berdyaev N. A. The meaning of history. M., 1990 °C. 166.

Roerich N.K. Culture and Civilization M., 1994. S. 109.

Nicholas Roerich. Synthesis

Bely A Symbolism as a worldview C 18

Bely A Symbolism as a worldview C 308

Terapiano Y. Journey into the depths of the night // Numbers (Paris). 1934. No. 10. S. 210.

Vladimir VASILIEV. Lights in the dark

Sholokhov in the minds of the intelligentsia “from the other side”

NOU VPO "Institute of Management"

Yaroslavl branch

Test

By discipline:

History of domestic state and law

Russian culture of the 19th century

Lecturer: Sakulin M.G.

Completed by student: Golovkina N.S.

Yaroslavl

Introduction

1.1 Education

1.2 Science

1.3 Literature

1.4 Painting and sculpture

1.5 Architecture

1.6 Theater and music

2.1 Enlightenment

2.2 Science

2.3 Literature

2.4 Painting and architecture

2.5 Theater and music

Conclusion

Bibliographic list

Introduction

History of Russian culture in the 19th century. occupies a special place. This is the century of the unprecedented rise of Russian culture. It was in the XIX century. Russian artistic culture has become a classic, having the value of an immortal model for all subsequent generations of people. If in economic and socio-political development Russia lagged behind the advanced European countries, then in cultural achievements it not only kept pace with them, but in many respects outstripped them. Russia has contributed wonderful works of literature, painting, and music to the world cultural fund. Russian scientists have made outstanding discoveries in science and technology.

The achievements of Russian culture were determined by many factors: Peter the Great's transformations, the Catherine's era of enlightened absolutism, the establishment of closer contacts with Western Europe. Big role played by the fact that in the economic and socio-political structure of Russia, slowly but steadily, capitalist relations took shape. Factories and plants appeared. The cities that became the main ones grew cultural centers. The urban population has increased. The need for literate and educated people. special role played the victory of the Russian people in the Patriotic War of 1812, which had a significant impact on literature, music, theater, fine arts.

However internal position cultural development in the country. The government deliberately slowed down violently evolving processes, actively fought against social thought in literature, journalism, theater and painting. It prevented a wide public education. The feudal system did not allow the entire population to enjoy high cultural achievements. Culture remained the privilege of an insignificant part of the ruling class. The cultural demands and needs of the top of society were alien to the people, who developed their own cultural ideas and traditions.

Goals term paper:

to study various aspects of Russian culture of the 19th century;

identify the main directions of development of culture;

identify the influence of social, political, and economic factors on cultural and social life.

The topic of XIX culture is very relevant for the present time. its study and consideration is carried out important features educational information, cultural.

culture russia petrovsky ekaterininsky

Chapter 1. Culture of Russia in the first half of the 19th century

1.1 Education

The education of society is one of the indicators of the cultural state of the people, the country. At the end of the 18th - the first half of the 19th century. a closed estate system of enlightenment and education was formed.

Schooling was not provided for serfs. For state peasants, parochial schools were created with a one-year training program. For the urban population of non-noble origin, county schools were created, for the children of the nobles - gymnasiums, the completion of which made it possible to receive higher education. For the nobles, special secondary educational institutions were also opened - paramilitary cadet schools.

The famous Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum became an exemplary educational institution, the program of which almost corresponded to the university one. Many prominent public and political figures and representatives of Russian culture studied at the Lyceum (poets and writers A.S. Pushkin, V.K. Kuchelbeker, I.I. Pushchin, A.A. Delvig, M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, diplomats A. M. Gorchakov and N. K. Girs, publicist N. A. Danilevsky, future Minister of Education D. A. Tolstoy, etc.)

The system was widespread home education, in which the main attention was paid to the study of foreign languages, music, literature, instilling good manners, painting .

Opportunities for the development of women's education remained very limited. For noblewomen, there were several closed institutions(schools). The most famous was the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens, opened in St. Petersburg at the end of the 18th century. and laid the foundation for women's education in Russia. According to his model, they opened women's institutes in other cities. The program was designed for 7-8 years of study and included arithmetic, history, literature, foreign languages, dancing, music, different kinds home economics. At the beginning of the 19th century in St. Petersburg and Moscow, schools for girls of the "chief officer rank" were created. In the 1930s, several schools were opened for the daughters of guards soldiers and sailors from the Black Sea. However, the bulk of Russian women were deprived of the opportunity to receive even primary education.

The major politicians understood that the state needed more and more educated or at least literate people, at the same time they were afraid of broad enlightenment of the people.

Developed university and higher education special education. Universities played a major role in shaping national identity and promoting modern scientific achievements. Public lectures by professors of Moscow University on the problems of domestic and world history, commercial and natural sciences. The lectures on the general history of Professor T.N. Granovsky, consonant with the public mood of that time. Higher specialized educational institutions prepared qualified personnel for the further modernization of Russia.

Despite the obstacles put in place by the government, there was a democratization of the student body. Raznochintsy (natives of non-noble strata) sought to get a higher education. Many of them were engaged in self-education, replenishing the ranks of the emerging Russian intelligentsia. Among them are the poet A. Koltsov, publicist N.A. Polevoy, A.V. Nikitenko, a former serf who was bought free and became a literary critic and academician of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences.

In contrast to the 18th century, which was characterized by an encyclopedism of scientists, in the first half of the 19th century, the differentiation of sciences began, the allocation of independent scientific disciplines(natural and humanitarian). Along with deepening theoretical knowledge all greater value acquired scientific discoveries who had applied value and introduced, albeit slowly, into practical life.

1.2 Science

In the first half of the 19th century began the differentiation of science, the allocation of independent scientific disciplines. Along with the deepening of theoretical knowledge, scientific discoveries, which had applied significance and were introduced, albeit slowly, into practical life, acquired increasing importance.

AT natural sciences ah there was a desire for a deeper knowledge of the basic laws of nature. The discoveries of Ya.K. Kaidanova, I.E. Dyadkovsky, K.F. Roulier made a significant contribution in this direction. Professor of Moscow University biologist K.F. The steering wheel was created before Charles Darwin evolutionary theory development of the animal world. Mathematician N.I. Lobachevsky in 1826, far ahead of his contemporary scientists, created the theory of "non-Euclidean geometry". The church declared it heretical, and colleagues recognized it as correct only in the 60s of the 19th century.

AT applied sciences especially important discoveries were made in the fields of electrical engineering, medicine, biology and mechanics. Physicist B.S. Jacobi in 1834 designed the first suburban electric motors powered by galvanic batteries. Academician V.V. Petrov created a number of original physical devices and laid the foundation for practical application electricity. P.L. Schilling created the first recording electromagnetic telegraph. Father and son E.A. and M.E. Cherepanovs built in the Urals steam engine and first railway on steam power. Chemist N.N. Zinin developed a technology for the synthesis of aniline - organic matter used as a paint fixative in the textile industry. Professor of Moscow University M.G. Pavlov introduced huge contribution in the development of agrobiology. N.I. Pirogov, participant in the defense of Sevastopol during Crimean War, for the first time in the world began to perform operations under ether anesthesia, widely used antiseptics in military field surgery. Professor A.M. Filomafitsky introduced the practice of using a microscope to study blood elements and, together with N.I. Pirogov developed a method of intravenous anesthesia.

First Russian round the world expedition was undertaken in 1803-1806. under the command of I.F. Krusenstern. On two ships "Nadezhda" and "Neva" the expedition passed from Kronstadt to Kamchatka and Alaska. The islands were studied Pacific Ocean, the coast of China, Sakhalin Island and the Kamchatka Peninsula. Later Yu.F. Lisyansky, having made his way from Hawaiian Islands to Alaska, collected rich geographical and ethnographic materials about these territories. In 1811, Russian sailors led by Captain V.M. Golovnin attempted a second world travel, examined Kurile Islands but were captured by the Japanese. Three-year stay in captivity of V.M. Golovnin used to collect valuable data on Japan, little known to Europeans. In 1819, a Russian expedition to Antarctica was carried out on two ships Vostok and Mirny.

In a special industry stood out and successfully developed humanitarian sciences. The desire to know Russian history as an important element of national culture has intensified. The Society of Russian History and Antiquities was established at Moscow University. An intensive search for monuments began Old Russian writing. In 1800, the found at the end of the 18th century was published. "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" - an outstanding monument ancient Russian literature.

In 1818, the first 8 volumes of "The History of the Russian State" by N.M. were published. Karamzin. This work caused a wide resonance of the public and ambiguous assessments of his conservative-monarchist concept.

Nevertheless, the "History" of N.M. Karamzin was a huge success and was repeatedly reprinted. It contributed to the further awakening of further interest in historical knowledge. Under the influence of Karamzin were created " Historical thoughts" K.F. Ryleev, the tragedy "Boris Godunov" by A.S. Pushkin, dramatic works A.K. Tolstoy, historical novels I.I. Lazhenchikova and N.V. Puppeteer.

The works of historians K.D. Kavelina, N.A. Polevoy, T.N. Granovsky, M.P. Pogodin. In the late 1940s, he began his research activities coryphaeus of Russian historical science S.M. Solovyov, who wrote the 29-volume "History of Russia" and many other works on different problems national history.

important task formation of culture was the development of rules and norms of the Russian literary and colloquial language. This was of particular importance due to the fact that the nobles despised the Russian language, many of them could not write a single line in Russian, did not read mother tongue. Some scientists advocated the burial of archaisms characteristic of the 18th century. and in general for the era of classicism. Some rightly protested against the servility to the West, the imitation of foreign models and the use of many foreign words(mainly French) in the Russian literary language.

Great importance To solve this problem, the creation of the verbal faculty at Moscow University and the activities of the Society of Lovers of Russian Literature had.

The development of the foundations of the Russian literary language was finally completed in the work of writers N.M. Karamzin, M.Yu. Lermontov, A.S. Pushkin, N.V. Gogol and others. Publicist N.I. Grech wrote "Practical Russian Grammar", for which he was elected a corresponding member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences.

1.3 Literature

It flourished in the first half of the 19th century. reached literature. It was she who defined this time as the "golden age" of Russian culture. The literature reflected the complex socio-political processes of that time. Writers differed in their beliefs and aspirations. There were also various literary and artistic styles within which opposing currents developed. At this time, many fundamental principles were affirmed in Russian literature that determined it. further development Keywords: nationality, high humanistic ideals, citizenship and a sense of national identity, patriotism, the search for social justice. Russian literature was an important tool development of social thought.

At the turn of the 18th - 19th centuries. Classicism gave way to sentimentalism. At the end of his creative way G.R. came to this direction. Derzhavin. The main representation of Russian sentimentalism was the writer and historian N.M. Karamzin (story " Poor Lisa" and etc.)

The War of 1812 brought Romanticism to life. This literary style was widespread in Russia, in other European countries. There were two currents in Russian romanticism. V.A. Zhukovsky was considered a representative of "salon" romanticism. In his ballads, he recreated the world of beliefs and mysticism, chivalric legends far from reality. Civil pathos, genuine patriotism were characteristic of another trend in romanticism, associated with the names of poets and writers of the Decembrists: K.F. Ryleev, V.K. Kuchelbeker, A.A. Bestuzhev-Marlinsky. They called for a struggle against the autocratic-serf order, advocated the ideals of freedom and service to the motherland. In his early work A.S. Pushkin and M.Yu. Lermontov filled romanticism with the highest artistic content.

Of great importance for the development of Russian literature was the activity of the "thick" magazines Sovremennik and Otechestvennye Zapiski. On the pages of these magazines, a new phenomenon arose for Russia - literary criticism. Magazines became centers literary associations, and spokesmen for different socio-political views. They reflected not only literary controversy, but also public struggle.

The development of literature took place in difficult socio-political conditions. Censorship restrictions were rigidly in effect, sometimes reaching the extreme. The works of writers were shredded. Magazines were fined and closed. The censor was punished, who missed the publication of "Eugene Onegin" in the poetic description of A.S. Pushkin of Tatyana's entry into Moscow the line "... And flocks of jackdaws on crosses." The gendarmes and priests saw this as an insult to the church.

1.4 Painting and sculpture

In Russian fine arts, as well as in literature, romanticism and realism were affirmed. official referral there was academic classicism in painting. The Academy of Arts became a conservative and inert institution, hindering any attempts at creative freedom. Its main principle was strict adherence to the canons of classicism, the predominance of religious themes, biblical and mythological subjects.

A prominent representative of romanticism in Russia was O.A. Kiprensky, whose brushes belong to the wonderful portraits of V.A. Zhukovsky and A.S. Pushkin. Portrait of A.S. Pushkin - young, fanned by political glory - is one of best creatures romantic image. Another artist, V.A., worked in the same genre. Tropinin. He also painted a portrait of A.S. Pushkin, but in a realistic manner. Before the viewer appears wise life experience, not really happy man.

The influence of romanticism was experienced by K.P. Bryullov. The painting "The Last Day of Pompeii", written, it would seem, in the traditions of classicism, expressed the artists' expectation of social changes, upcoming major political events.

A special place in Russian painting is occupied by the work of A.A. Ivanova. His painting "The Appearance of Christ to the People" became an event in world art. The grandiose picture, which was created over 20 years, continues to excite many generations of viewers.

In the first half of the 19th century Russian painting includes everyday plot, which was one of the first to be addressed by A.G. Venetsianov. His paintings "On arable land", "Zakharka", "Morning of the landowner" are dedicated to ordinary people, spiritual threads are connected with the life and way of life of the people. The successor of the tradition of A.G. Venetsianov was P.A. Fedotov. His canvases are not only realistic, but also filled with satirical content, exposing the commercial morality, life and customs of the elite of society ("Major's Matchmaking", "Fresh Cavalier", etc.). Contemporaries rightly compared P.A. Fedotov in painting with N.V. Gogol in literature.

At the turn of the 18th - 19th centuries. there has been a rise in Russian monumental sculpture. P.A. Martos erected the first monument in Moscow - to Minin and Pozharsky on Red Square. According to the project of Montferrand, a 47-meter column was erected on Palace Square in front of winter palace as a monument to Alexander I and a monument in honor of the victory in the war of 1812 B.I. Orlovsky created monuments to M.I. Kutuzov and M.B. Barclay de Tolly in Petersburg. I.P. Vitali designed the fountain sculptures on Theater Square in Moscow. PC. Klodt erected four equestrian sculptural groups on the Anichkov Bridge and an equestrian statue of Nicholas I in St. Petersburg. F.P. Tolstoy created a series of wonderful bas-reliefs and medals dedicated to the Patriotic War of 1812.

1.5 Architecture

Russian architecture of the first half of the 19th century. associated with the traditions of late classicism. It is characterized by the creation of large and complete ensembles.

This was especially evident in St. Petersburg, where entire avenues and quarters were formed, striking in their unity and harmony. The building of the Admiralty was erected according to the project of A.D. Zakharov. From the Admiralty, the rays of St. Petersburg avenues spread. Nevsky Prospekt acquired a completed look after the construction of A.N. Voronikhin of the Kazan Cathedral. Designed by Montferrand Saint Isaac's Cathedral- most large building Russia of that time. It was in the first half of the 19th century. Petersburg has become a true masterpiece of world architecture.

Moscow, which burned down in 1812, was also rebuilt according to the traditions of classicism, but on a smaller scale than St. Petersburg. close-up architectural ensemble became Manezhnaya Square with the buildings of the University, the Manezh and the Alexander Garden under the walls of the Kremlin. grandiose building The arena was built to meet Russian troops returning from foreign campaign 1813-1815 The garden was laid out on the site of the dirty and muddy river Neglinka, the waters of which were enclosed in special pipes taken underground. The Cathedral of Christ the Savior was founded on the banks of the Moskva River. It was conceived as a symbol of deliverance from the French invasion of 1812 and the victory of Russian weapons. Numerous shopping arcades and shops were located on Red Square. Tverskaya Street was framed by orchards and orchards. Behind the Tverskaya Zastava (in the area of ​​the present Belorussky railway station) stretched a huge field adapted for hunting hares.

Imitating both capitals, the provincial towns were also transformed. Nikolsky Cossack Cathedral was erected in Omsk according to Stasov's project. In Odessa, according to the project of A.I. Melnikov created an ensemble of Primorsky Boulevard with semicircular buildings facing the sea.

By the end of the first half of the 19th century. The crisis of classicism began to manifest itself in architecture. Contemporaries were already tired of his strict forms. It had a deterrent effect on the development of civil engineering. The "Russian-Byzantine style", which had little connection with national town-planning traditions, became widespread.

1.6 Theater and music

In the first half of the 19th century revived in Russia theatrical life. There were different types of theatres. Serf theaters belonging to Russian aristocratic families (Sheremetevs, Apraksins, Yusupovs, and others) were still widespread. There were few state theaters (Alexandrinsky and Mariinsky in St. Petersburg, Bolshoi and Maly in Moscow). They were under the petty tutelage of the government, which constantly interfered with the repertoire, the selection of actors and other aspects of their activities. This greatly hindered theatrical creativity. Private theaters also appeared, which were endlessly allowed, then banned by the authorities.

The theater developed under the influence of the same trends as literature. In it in the first decades of the 19th century. dominated by classicism and sentimentalism. In the spirit of classicism, the historical tragedies of V.A. Ozerov ("Oedipus in Athens", "Dmitry Donskoy"). Romantic plays by Russian and foreign authors were staged on the stage. Plays by F. Schiller, W. Shakespeare and others were played. Of the Russian authors, N.V. A puppeteer who wrote a number of historical plays ("The Hand of the Most High Fatherland Saved", etc.). Opera and ballet were dominated by the Italian and French schools. In the 30-40s of the 19th century. the influence of Russian literature on the theatrical repertoire increased, in which realistic traditions began to assert themselves. major event public cultural life Russia began to stage the play by N.V. Gogol's "Inspector".

In Russia, a national theater school who has brought up many talented artists.

Russian music received its own development. Composers did not seek to borrow from German, Italian and French schools, searched own ways musical self-expression. Combination folk motives with romanticism led to the emergence of Russian romance - a special variety musical genre. Romances by A.A. Alyabyeva "Nightingale", A.E. Varlamov "Red Sundress", A.L. Gurileva "Mother Dove" are popular today.

An outstanding composer of that era was M.I. Glinka, who created a number of major musical works. Opera "Life for the Tsar" N.V. Kukolnik, "Ruslan and Lyudmila" by A.S. Pushkin laid the foundations of Russian opera national art. M.I. Glinka wrote many romances based on poems by famous Russian poets. The most famous was his romance "I remember wonderful moment"to the verses of A.S. Pushkin. A.S. Dargomyzhsky was a wonderful composer, who boldly introduced musical works stories from everyday life and folk songs. The most famous was his opera "Mermaid", enthusiastically received by the public.

So, the most impressive successes of Russia in the first half of the 19th century. achieved in the field of culture. The world fund forever includes the works of many Russian writers and poets, artists, sculptors, architects and composers. The process of the formation of the Russian literary language and, in general, the formation of a national culture was completed. Traditions established in the first half of the 19th century developed and multiplied in subsequent times.

Chapter 2. Culture of Russia in the second half of the 19th century

2.1 Enlightenment

Literacy in post-reform Russia was required literally at every step; it was necessary for a juror and a recruit in the army, a peasant who had gone to a factory or trade. Therefore, the enlightenment of the people took a huge step forward after 1861: in the 60s only 6% of the population could read, in 1897 - 21%. In Russia, three main types of elementary school have developed: state, zemstvo and parochial. In church schools they taught first of all the law of God, church singing and Church Slavonic; secular subjects were taught more widely in ministerial and zemstvo schools. Huge contribution to the development rural school introduced the asceticism of the zemstvo intelligentsia. Where there were neither state, nor zemstvo, nor church schools, the peasants pooled their money to start their own "literacy schools." Helped educate adults Sunday schools.

Quantity primary schools increased 17 times - by 1896 there were about 79 thousand of them with 3800 thousand students. And yet the number of literate people in Russia was far from meeting the needs of the time. Two thirds of the children school age stayed out of school. The reason for this was the lack of funds allocated for education, and the rivalry between secular and church schools.

Secondary education also developed: it was given classical gymnasiums, where the emphasis was on humanitarian subjects and ancient languages, and real gymnasiums - natural and exact sciences were taught more widely in them. Women's gymnasiums arose. By the end of the 19th century in Russia there were about 600 men's secondary educational institutions with 150 thousand students and about 200 women's secondary schools with 75 thousand students.

Improved higher education. In the second half of the 19th century. a number of new universities were founded - Warsaw, Novorossiysk, Tomsk; but more attention was given to special higher educational institutions - there were about 30 of them. Higher education for women appeared. During the post-reform period, the number of higher educational institutions more than quadrupled (from 14 to 63), with about 30,000 students enrolled.

Enlightenment in Russia has always been closely connected with politics and depended on the general state course. In the 60s in high school autonomy was given secondary school opened for all classes, military and religious schools were moving closer to civil ones, in primary education schools coexisted different types. In the 1980s, government supervision over education was strengthened, class principles were strengthened, the isolation of military and religious schools was strengthened; women's access to higher education was difficult, in primary education, emphasis was placed on church schools.

The number of public reading rooms has grown in the half century since peasant reform more than 3 times (from 280 to 862). In the second half of the 19th century. the Historical Museum, the Polytechnic Museum, Tretyakov Gallery and Rumyantsev Library, Russian Museum.

2.2 Science

The development of education created the basis for the flourishing of science. The studies of the mathematician P.L. Chebyshev, physicists A.G. Stoletov and P.N. Lebedev. Chebyshev's student S.V. Kovalevskaya became the first female corresponding member of the Academy of Sciences. The great discovery was periodic law chemical elements, formulated in 1869 by D.I. Mendeleev. A.M. Butlerov conducted in-depth research in the field organic chemistry; higher nervous activity animals and humans were studied by I.M. Sechenov and I.P. Pavlov.

Significant progress has been made in geographical research: N.M. Przhevalsky studied Central Asia, N.N. Miklouho-Maclay - Oceania. The post-reform era was marked by a number of technical discoveries: P.N. Yablochkov and A.N. Lodygin designed electric lamps, A.S. Popov - radio receiver. In the 1980s, the first power plant in Russia was built.

The brilliant achievements of the exact and natural sciences strengthened the cult of reason and exact knowledge among the intelligentsia. Many prominent Russian scientists were atheists and materialists. Chernyshevsky, Dobrolyubov, Pisarev adhered to materialistic views in philosophy and sociology. A different position was taken by the positivists. Positivism was the most popular philosophical trend in the second half of the 19th century. Many liberals were positivists, including K.D. Kavelin, known for his labors in philosophy and psychology. In the second half of the 19th century. Russian rose to a considerable height historical science. The great historian S.M. Solovyov created the fundamental "History of Russia from ancient times" in 29 volumes. Following the views of Hegel, he portrayed the development of Russia as an organic, internally natural process, arising from the struggle of opposites - a creative state principle and destructive anti-state tendencies (popular riots, Cossack freemen, etc.).

2.3 Literature

The literature of the post-reform era brought world fame Russian culture. The social tension of the second half of the 19th century, the colossal psychological overload experienced by a person at a time of turbulent change, forced great writers to pose and solve the most profound questions - about the nature of man, good and evil, the meaning of life, the essence of being. This was clearly reflected in the novels of F.M. Dostoevsky - "Crime and Punishment", "The Idiot", "The Brothers Karamazov" - and L.N. Tolstoy - "War and Peace", "Anna Karenina", "Sunday".

Was realism a striking feature of post-reform literature? the desire to portray the "truth of life", the denunciation of social vices, democracy, the craving for rapprochement with the people. This was especially clearly manifested in the poetry of N.A. Nekrasov and satires M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin. Other views were defended by the lyricist A.A. Fet, who believed that art should not directly interfere with reality, but should reflect eternal themes and serve beauty. The struggle between the supporters of the theory of the so-called " pure art"and civil art has become one of the major topics literary discussions of the first post-reform years. In the course of this struggle, the cult of social, civic art established itself for a long time in Russian literature.

2.4 Painting and architecture

The democratic-realistic spirit of the 60s influenced art with particular force. In painting, he is represented by the movement of the "Wanderers", in music - by the circle "Mighty Handful", in the theater - by the dramaturgy of A.N. Ostrovsky.

a bright phenomenon Wanderers were satirical, accusatory pictures of V.G. Perov - "Rural religious procession for Easter", "Tea drinking in Mytishchi". Master portrait painting was I.N. Kramskoy - "L. Tolstoy", "Nekrasov". ON THE. Yaroshenko created images of young raznochintsev intellectuals (paintings "Student", "Cursist").

The pinnacle of Russian painting was the canvases of I.E. Repin (1844 - 1930), in whose work the main directions of travel were combined - thoughts about the people ("Barge haulers on the Volga"), interest in history ("Ivan the Terrible and his son Ivan", "Cossacks write a letter to the Turkish Sultan"), the theme of the revolution ("Refusal of confession", "Arrest of the propagandist").

The search began in architecture national style, elements of Russian architecture of the 17th century were used. In the 80-90s, this course was encouraged by the authorities - an example is the Church of the Resurrection of Christ (the Savior on Spilled Blood) in St. Petersburg, erected according to the project of the architect A.A. Parlanda at the site of the death of Alexander II. Buildings were built in the "neo-Russian style" Historical Museum in Moscow (architect V.O. Sherwood), the Upper Trading Rows - now the Gumma building (A.N. Pomerantsev), the building of the Moscow City Duma (D.N. Chichagov).

2.5 Theater and music

In the development of the theater huge role played the coryphaeus of Russian dramaturgy A.N. Ostrovsky: for almost three decades, his new plays were staged every year. He scourged social vices, the customs of the "dark kingdom". Creativity Ostrovsky was inextricably linked with the Maly Theater in Moscow. Great actors P.M. played here. Sadovsky, A.P. Lensky, M.N. Yermolov. The Alexandria Theater in St. Petersburg also stood out. Opera and ballet were presented, first of all, by the St. Petersburg Mariinsky and Moscow Bolshoi Theaters. The theater developed in the provinces, private and " folk theaters".

Great strides have been made in music. The Russian national music school, founded by M.I. Glinka. Its traditions were continued by composers N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov, M.P. Mussorgsky, A.P. Borodin, M.A. Balakirev, Ts.A. Cui. They created symphonies and operas using folk melodies, plots from Russian history and literature ("Boris Godunov" by Mussorgsky, "Prince Igor" by Borodin, "The Snow Maiden" and "Sadko" by Rimsky-Korsakov). The first Russian conservatories opened in St. Petersburg (1862) and Moscow (1866).

Conclusion

Russia has gone from cultural isolation to integration with European culture.

For the majority of the country's population - the peasantry, urban dwellers, merchants, artisans, clergy - a new one that has absorbed the juices European enlightenment culture remained alien. The people continued to live by the old beliefs and customs, enlightenment did not touch them. If to XIX century in high society, university education became prestigious and the talent of a scientist, writer, artist, composer, artist began to command respect regardless of the social origin of a person, then the common people saw in mental labor"lordly fun", entertainment from idleness and looked at the intelligentsia "as an alien race" (Berdyaev).

There was a gap between the old and new culture. Such was the price that Russia paid for the sharp turn in its historical path and the way out of cultural isolation. The historical will of Peter I and his followers was able to enter Russia into this turn, but it was not enough to extinguish the force of cultural inertia that dominated the people. Culture could not stand the situation created at this turn. internal stress and dispersed at the seams, which until then connected its various guises - folk and lordly, rural and urban, religious and secular, "soil" and "enlightened". The old, pre-Petrine type of culture has retained its folk, rural, religious, "soil" existence. Moreover, having rejected all alien foreign innovations, he withdrew and froze for a long time in the almost unchanged forms of Russian ethnic culture.

Bibliographic list

1. Balakina T.I. History of Russian culture. - M., 2004. - p.95-98

Gregoriev A.A., Fedorova V.I. History of Russia from ancient times to the present day. - Krasnoyarsk: KSPU, 2002. - p.104-106

Zezina M.R., Koshman L.V., Shulgin V.S. History of Russian culture. - Moscow, 2000. - p.63-64

Milyukov P.N. Essays on the history of Russian culture. - M., 2003. - p.15-19.

Orlov A.S., Polunov A.Yu. Manual on the history of the Fatherland. - M., 2004. - p.27

Orlov A.S., Tereshchenko Yu.A. Fundamentals of the course of the history of Russia. - M.: Prostor, 2002. - p.119-120

Pavlova G.E. Organization of science in Russia in the first half of the 19th century. - M., 2003. - p.65-70

Poznansky V.V. Essays on Russian culture in the first half of the 19th century. - M., 1999. p. - fourteen

Selvanyuk M.I., Gladkaya E.A., Podgayko E.A. History of Russia. 100 exam answers. - M. - Rostov-on-Don: "March", 2003. p.77

Shulgin V.S., Koshman L.V. Culture of Russia 19-20 V.M., 2005. p.171-182

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In the first half of the 19th century, an original culture was formed in Russia (in all spheres), which became on a par with the culture of the most culturally developed countries Europe. The War of 1812 had an impact not only on politics and economics. After the war, society began to change, people began to change. At this time, Russian culture ceases to be student-centered, as it was in many respects in the previous century.

In architecture, classicism retained its position with its close attention to the ancient heritage as the norm for an ideal model. St. Petersburg undoubtedly became the capital of Russian classicism. In architecture, classicism retained its position with its close attention to the ancient heritage as the norm for an ideal model. St. Petersburg undoubtedly became the capital of Russian classicism.

Gg - the new building of the Admiralty (designed by A. D. Zakharov) gg - Alexander Column on palace square(O. Montferrand)

Gg. - the building of the Kazan Cathedral (A. N. Voronikhin) - the building was built on the model of St. Peter's in Rome by Michelangelo. St. Isaac's Cathedral (O. Montferrand)

According to the project of the outstanding architect O. I. Bove () in 1814, Red Square was reconstructed.

Orest Adamovich Kiprensky () Vasily Andreevich Tropinin () Pavel Andreevich Fedotov ()

In the first half of the 19th century, the formation national theater. Theater becomes social phenomenon, appear modern theaters. In the first half of the XIX century. V. N. Asenkova shone on the stage of the Alexandrinsky Theater. V. A. Karotigin M. S. Shchepkin.

Conclusion: The first half of the 19th century was a time of cultural upsurge in Russia. The Patriotic War gave a strong impetus to the development of Russian national identity, there is a turn educated society to the people - both to its problems and to its living spiritual heritage. To a large extent, culture acquires a pronounced national coloring, it becomes precisely “Russian”.

In the mid 50s. a social upsurge began, which led to changes in the cultural life of the country. The preservation of autocracy, the incompleteness of reforms caused a split among the intelligentsia. Representatives of science, culture and advanced statesmen had to determine their attitude to the transformations taking place in society. In Russian culture of the late 19th century. three main currents were distinguished: conservative, democratic and liberal. Representatives of conservatives - V.P. Botkin, A.V. Druzhinin, P.V. Annenkov, A.N. Maikov, A.A. "And" Home conversation ". Democrats (N.G. Chernyshevsky, N.A. Dobrolyubov, D.I. Pisarev, N.A. Nekrasov), who stood on the positions of realism, spoke out in the magazines" Russian word”and“ Domestic Notes ”. Tolstoy (“Warrior and Peace”, “Anna Karenina”, etc.), F.M. Dostoevsky (“Crime and Punishment”, “The Idiot”, etc.), N.G. Chernyshevsky “What to Do”, N.A. Nekrasov “Who Lives Well in Rus'”, I.A. Goncharov “Oblomov”, I. S. Turgenev " Noble Nest", A.P. Chekhov "Steppe", "Seagull", V.I. Dal " Dictionary". A.I. Kuprin "The First Debut", M. Gorky "Makar Chudra". Revolutionary changes have taken place in painting. On the initiative of I.N. convoy”, “Barge haulers on the Volga”), M.E. Makovsky (“Condemned”, “Prisoner”, N.A. Yaroshenko (“Student”) and others. artistic life Russia. great attention artists devoted to the peasantry: E.I. Repin "The Religious Procession in the Kursk Village", G.T. Myasoedov "Mowers". In the historical genre significant works created by V.I. Surikov “Morning of the Streltsy Execution”, V.G. Perov “Pugachev’s Court”, I.E. Repin “Stenka Razin”, V.M. Vasnetsov “Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich the Terrible”. The painters presented interesting work: I.I. Shishkin "Oak Grove", A.K. Savrasov "Rooks Have Arrived", A.I. Kuindzhi "Night on the Dnieper". Russian national music school was formed. In 1859, A.G. Rubinshtein founded the Russian Musical Society in St. Petersburg. In 1862, M.A. Balakirev and G.Ya. Lomakin organized the first free music school. In 1883 the Moscow Philharmonic Society was founded. Conservatories were opened in St. Petersburg (1862) and Moscow (1866). In the second half of the 19th century. such brilliant composers and performers as P.I. Tchaikovsky, N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov, M.P. Mussorgsky, A.P. a huge impact on the formation of Russian musical culture. Enlightenment underwent a profound reform. To meet the needs of the time, in 1863 the Charter of gymnasiums was adopted, which divided the gymnasiums into classical (humanitarian) and real ones, the basis of the program of which was the study exact sciences. In 1863, women's gymnasiums were opened and a new university charter was adopted. There were significant discoveries in science and technology. In 1884 O.D. Khvolson published "Popular Lectures on Electricity and Magnetism". A.S. Popov repeated the experiments of G. Hertz to obtain electromagnetic waves, A.G. Stoletov created a photocell. On March 24, 1896, A.S. Popov demonstrated the transmission of signals over a distance by transmitting the world's first radiogram. The second half of the 19th century was the time of the work of the outstanding scientists D.I.