1. Name the part of speech.

Determine whether the given word form changes or does not change.

2. Highlight ending(prove).

Change the word, set its meaning, indicate the way the ending is expressed (zero or materially expressed). Give examples of words with this ending.

3. Select base.

Determine its composition and nature: simple - complex, segmented - non-segmented, intermittent or continuous.

4. Select suffixes.

Set their meaning, function (word-forming, form-forming, basic-forming, evaluation), method of expression. Give examples of 2-3 words with the same suffixes.

5. Select attachments.

Determine their meaning and function. Give examples of 2-3 words with the same prefixes.

6. Select root.

Pick up related words and forms with all allomorphs of the root, name these allomorphs. Specify alternation at the root. Determine if the root is free or bound (prove).

7. Indicate whether there are changes in the morphemic composition of the word: in the composition of the root, prefix, suffix (simplification, re-decomposition, complication). Determine its cause.

Examples of morpheme analysis of words

waited ( beforerailway al Ø Xia )

1. Verb, modified word.
2. I waited a ss, waited and s . Zero termination ( Ø ) indicates that the verb is in m. p., in singular. h. Examples of words with the same ending: showed Ø sya, laughed Ø sya .
3. The foundation waited-Xia - simple, segmented, discontinuous.
4. Suffix - a- - basic, suffix - l- - formative (meaning of past tense verbs), postfix - Xia- - derivational and formative. Examples of words with the same suffixes: kup alXia , circle alXia .
5. Console before- - derivational, denotes an action brought to an end. Examples of words with the same prefix: before rode, before walked, before flew.
6. Root - railway - ; railway al - railway et - about Jew the former; -railway - //-railway "- //-Jew - - the root is free, because in modern Russian there is the word "waiting", where the root is equal to the base.
7. Historical changes there is no word in it.

Ring ( tolc about )

1. Noun, modified word.
2. rings a, rings ohm, oh rings e. The ending -about indicates that the noun cf. p., II cl., in I. p. or V. p., in units. h. Examples of words with the same ending: apples about, cloud about .
3. stem tolc- - simple, indivisible, continuous.
4. Root rings - ; rings - rings - ring; rings - //rings- //ring "- - the root is free, because in modern Russian there is the word" ring ", where the root is equal to the base.
5. There are changes in the morphemic composition of the word, historically it was: count b c about (related words were stake, well). Simplification. The reason is a change in the phonetic structure of the language as a result of the drop of reduced vowels and the loss of a motivated word.

Legend:

Ø - null ending, -and- the ending, ** ** - stem, ** - suffix, Ø - zero suffix, *** - console, **** - root of the word: underpis chik Ø - underpis chik and .

Surely every student has come across such a definition as a morpheme. This concept is quite closely related to the composition of the word, and its knowledge helps to fulfill morphemic analysis. Let's talk about what it is. We will also understand what morphemic analysis is.

What is a morpheme?

A morpheme is the smallest significant part the words. The term was first introduced by the famous scientist Badouin de Courtenay back in mid-nineteenth centuries and is still used in linguistics.

All words are made up of morphemes. They are the building blocks that make up words. Each component has its own meaning and role. The following types of morphemes are distinguished: obligatory and optional. The obligatory is always present in the word and is called the root. Optional may or may not be part of the lexeme. These morphemes are called affixes. Let's look at each type separately.

Mandatory morphemes

As already mentioned, there is only one obligatory morpheme in Russian, and it is called the root. There is no such word that would exist without this morpheme. Words without a root (exception - some are missing in Russian.

It is the main one, as it carries the main lexical meaning. For example, the token forest, forestry, forester combines one root - forest. All these words have a similar meaning associated with the forest. The only thing is their difference in shades. Thus, a forest is a space covered with trees; forest - related to the forest; forester - a person who guards it.

AT compound words ah there are several roots, for example, in the word fair-faced two roots - light and face. Keep this in mind when parsing the word. Basically, compound words have two roots, in some cases there may be words with a large set.

Optional morphemes

Optional morphemes of the Russian language - affixes. Among them are the following:

• prefixes or prefixes;
• postfixes, or suffixes;
• inflections, or endings;
• interfixes.

They may or may not be present in the word. Moreover, each new optional morpheme gives it a new meaning.

The first two types of morphemes convey lexical and grammatical meaning. Inflections express only Even zero, that is, having no sound expression, the ending shows what grammatical meaning the lexeme has.

Prefixes and postfixes

Let us first analyze those morphemes that give new lexical and grammatical shades.

Prefixes are always placed at the beginning of a word and change its meaning. There are about 70 prefixes in Russian. Most of them are formed from prepositions. At school, they are often called prefixes. Each prefix has its own meaning and changes the connotation of the word. For example, drive- move somewhere; drive up- get close to something.

So, we learned that a morpheme is the smallest meaningful part of a word, determined what morphemes are, talked about each of them. We also found out how to correctly do morphemic parsing of a word and considered an example of this parsing. Remembered the dictionaries that will help you check the correct parsing of the word. We hope the article was useful to you.

Morphemic and derivational analysis of the word(what is conventionally denoted by the number 2) are two interrelated stages in the analysis of the structure of the word.

A) Plan of morphemic analysis

1. Write the word in the form in which it is presented in the sentence. Define a word as a part of speech (inflected or unchangeable part speech).
2. Select the ending of the modified word and indicate its meaning. To determine the ending, the word must be declined or conjugated.
3. Specify the basis of the word.
4. Select the root of the word; pick up single words.
5. Select prefixes, suffixes, postfixes, connecting vowels (if any); pick up other words with the same prefixes, suffixes, etc., but with a different root.

B) Plan of word-formation analysis

1. Put the word in the initial form.
2. Indicate the basis of the word and determine whether it is a derivative.
3. For a derived word, choose a word-formation pair (the word from which the parsed word is directly formed).
4. Indicate the stem in the generating word.
5. Indicate derivational prefixes, suffixes, postfixes (if any).
6. Specify how the word is formed.

Note!

1) In morphemic analysis, the form of the word that is presented in specific text; in word-formation analysis - a word in initial form.

2) The basis of the parsed form of the word can always be distinguished, the ending (including the zero ending) is distinguished only in the changed parts of speech (there are no endings for gerunds, adverbs, service units speech and some nouns and adjectives).

3) To determine whether a word is a derivative, you need to pay attention to the composition of its stem (in its initial form!).

4) If the basis of the initial form of the word consists of one root, then it is usually non-derivative. Exceptions can be made for words that are formed by: (a) zero suffixation; (b) transition from one part of speech to another.

5) If the stem of the initial form of a word consists of a root and a prefix, a suffix, etc., such a word is usually a derivative. Exceptions are some non-prefixed verbs.

6) A compound word is always a derivative.

An example of morphemic and word-formation parsing

AT county town There were so many hairdressers 2 and funeral processions that it seemed that the inhabitants 2 of the city were born 2 only to shave 2 , cut their hair, freshen their heads 2 vetetales and immediately die. But in reality, people were born, shaved and died quite rarely in the county 2 town N. The life of city N was the quietest 2 . spring evenings they were intoxicating, the mud sparkled like anthracite under the moon, and all the youth of the city were so in love 2 with the secretary of the local communal committee 2 that it prevented her from working (Ilf and Petrov).

(Many) barbershops

1) Morphemic parsing:

1. hairdresser-ck - them(noun).
2. End - - them. It expresses the meanings of the plural, R.p., cf.: barbershop - and I, hairdresser - oh.
3. The basis of the form is a hairdresser-sk-.
4. Root - the hairdresser-. One-word words: the hairdresser□ , hairdresser -sh-a.
5. -ck- - suffix. This is an adjective suffix, cf.: sailor- ck-uy, female- ck-uy.

1. Initial form - salon.
2. The basis of the word is hairdresser-. Derivative base.
3-5. barbershop - and I(n.) ← barbershop - uy(adj.).
6. The word is formed by transition from one part of speech to another (from adjective to noun - substantiation).

Inhabitants

1) Morphemic analysis:

1. zhi-tel - and(noun).
2. End - - and. It expresses the meanings of plural, I.p., cf.: inhabitant □, inhabitant - I.
3. The basis of the form is zhi-tel-.
4. Root - zhi-. One-word words: zhi-be, zhi -l-oh.
5. -Tel- suffix. This is a noun suffix, cf.: pis-a- Tel□ , water-and- Tel□ .

2) Word-building analysis:

1. Initial form - a citizen.
2. The basis of the word is zhi-tel. Derivative base.
3-4. live- Tel□ → zhi - be.
5. -tel - derivational suffix.
6. Suffix way.

Born

1) Morphemic analysis:

1. birth - yut-sya(verb).
2. End - - ut. It expresses the meaning of the 3rd l. pl., cf.: birth-a-et-sya, birth-a-em-sya.
3. The basis of the form is birth-a-...-sya.
4. Root - birth-. One-word words: birth-th, born-th.
5. -a- - suffix. It is a verb suffix, cf.: pis- a-t, decide- a-th.
-Xia we -t-t-sya, kup-a-t-t-sya.

2) Word-building analysis:

1. Initial form - be born.
2. The basis of the word is birth-a-...-sya. Derivative base.
3-4. born - be-Xia← birth - be.
5. -sya - derivational postfix.
6. Postfix method.

Shave

1) Morphemic analysis:

1. brie - be-sya (a verb in an indefinite form).
2. End - - be on-bra-et-sya, on-bre-em-sya.
3. The basis of the form - bri- ... -sya.
4. Root - brie-. One-word words: brie tv-and you- brie-th.
5. on- - prefix, cf .: by -sl-a-be, by -garden-and-be.
-Xia- postfix reflexive verb, compare: we -t- Xia, kup-a -t- Xia.

2) Word-building analysis:

1. Initial form - shave.
2. The basis of the word is in-bri- ... -sya. Derivative base.
3-6. a) b-bri -th- Xia ← brie-t; -sya- derivational postfix; postfix method.
b) b-bri -th- Xia← brie -t- Xia; on- - derivational prefix; prefix method.

Refresh

1) Morphemic analysis:

1. o-fresh-and - be(verb in indefinite form).
2. End - - be. It expresses the meaning of an indefinite form, cf.: o-fresh-it, o-fresh-im.
3. The basis of the form is o-fresh-and-.
4. Root - fresh-. One-word words: fresh th, fresh-about.
5. about- - prefix, cf .: o-bel-i-th, o-light-and-th.
-and- - verb suffix, cf.: o-bel- and-t, o-light- and-th.

2) Word-building analysis:

1. Initial form - refresh.
2. The basis of the word is o-fresh-and-. Derivative base.
3-4. oh-fresh-and-t ← fresh.
5. o- - derivational prefix; -i - derivational suffix.
6. Attachment-suffix method.

head

1) Morphemic analysis:

1. goals - at(noun).
2. End - - at. It expresses the meaning of f.r., singular, V.p., cf.: heads - a, heads - oh.
3. The basis of the form - heads -.
4. Root - goals-. One-word words: goals -n-oh, golov -ast th.

2) Word-building analysis:

1. Initial form - head.
2. The basis of the word is head-. The basis is non-derivative (consists of one root).

(In) county (city)

1) Morphemic analysis:

1. county - ohm(adjective).
2. End - - ohm. It expresses the values ​​of singular, m.r., p.p. compare: county-n-th, county-n-th.
3. The basis of the form is county-n-.
4. Root - county-. One-word words: county□ , by- county -n-th.
5. -n- - suffix. This is an adjective suffix, cf .: volost- n-oh, entrance- n-th.

2) Word-building analysis:

1. Initial form - county.
2. The basis of the word is county-n-. Derivative base.
3-4. county-n - th← county □ .
5. -n- - derivational suffix.
6. Suffix way.

(Life)… (was) the quietest

1) Morphemic analysis:

1. tish-aysh - her(adjective).
2. End - - her. It expresses the meaning of singular, female, etc., compare: tish-aysh - and I, tish-aysh - wow.
3. The basis of the form is tish-aysh-.
4. Root - hush-. One-word words: quiet-about, quiet-in-a.
5. -aish- - suffix of the superlative form of the adjective, cf .: great-y - great- aish-th, fresh -th - fresh- aish th.

2) Word-building analysis:

1. Initial form ( positive degree adjective) - quiet.
2. The basis of the word is quiet-. The basis is non-derivative (consists of one root).

in love

1) Morphemic analysis:

1. in-love-en - a(short form of participle).
2. End - - a. It expresses the meaning of singular, female, cf.: in-love-yon □, in-love-en - s.
3. The basis of the form is in-love-yon-.
4. Root - love-. One-word words: love-be(alternating b/bl), love□ .
5. in- - prefix, cf .: in -krapl-yonn-th, in -plet-yonn-th.
-en- short suffix passive communion past tense of the verb, cf .: in-non- en-a, in-plet- en-a.

2) Word-building analysis:

1. The initial form of the sacrament - enamored.
2. The basis of the sacrament is in-love-yonn-. Derivative base.
3-4. in-love-yonn - th← in-love-and - be.
5. -yonn - participle suffix.
6. Suffix way.

(To the secretary) local committee

1) Morphemic analysis:

1. place-com - a(abbreviated word, noun).
2. End - - a. It expresses the meaning of m.r., singular, R.p., cf.: place-com □, place-com - ohm.
3. The basis of the form is place-com-.
4. Word roots: 1) places-; 2) Committee)- - in abbreviated form. One-word words: places -n-th, places-about; Committee□ , committee -ck-uy.
5. There are no prefixes and suffixes.

2) Word-building analysis:

1. Initial form - local committee.
2. The basis of the word is place-com-. Derivative base.
3-4. place-com □ ← places - (n)-th Committee).
5-6. The addition of bases reduced to syllables is an abbreviation.

morphemic subject. Morpheme. Alternation of vowels and consonants in morphemes

AT morphemics two main questions are addressed:

1) how the morphemes of the Russian language are classified,

2) how the word is divided into morphemes, that is, what is the algorithm for morphemic division.

The basic unit of morphemics is the morpheme. Morpheme it minimal significant part of a word (root, prefix, suffix, ending).

In this definition, both definitions are equally important minimal and significant; morpheme smallest unit language that matters.

The minimum unit of audio stream is sound. Located in strong position sounds can distinguish words: pru d a and pru t a. But the sounds do not denote either concepts, or objects, or their signs, that is, they do not matter.

In the course of lexicology, students study the words grammatically designed meaningful units that serve to name objects of reality.

Phrases, like words, serve to name objects of reality, then they do it more accurately, dissected (cf .: table and desk).

One more significant unit is sentence. Its difference from morphemes and words is, firstly, that it is more large unit, consisting of words, and secondly, in the fact that the sentence, having a target and intonation design, serves as a unit of communication, communication.

A morpheme is different from the units of all others language levels: the morpheme differs from sounds in that it matters; from words in that it is not a grammatically formed unit of naming (it is not characterized as a dictionary unit belonging to a certain part of speech); from sentences by the fact that it is not a communicative unit.

A morpheme is a minimal two-sided unit, that is, a unit that has both sound and meaning. It is not divided into smaller meaningful parts of the word. Words are built from morphemes, which, in turn, are " building material» for offers.

In Russian, alphabetic and sound composition morphemes is not invariable: non-phonetic (i.e., not caused by phonetic conditions - position in relation to stress, end phonetic word and to other sounds) alternation of vowels and consonants. These alternations are not accidental, they are explained historical processes that took place in the language in old times, so the alternations are systemic in nature.

In modern Russian, the following alternations are presented in the composition of morphemes:

Vowel alternations:

about/ # (zero sound, fluent vowel): With about n sleep,

e / #:d e day,

e/o: br e doo br about child,

about / a:cm about third see a try,

e / about / # / and: sob e ru sat about p collect oct and army,

about / at / s: With about x c at hoi high s hat.

There are other vowel alternations, but they are less common.

Consonant alternations:

double hard / double soft: RU[to ]a ru[to" ]e,

G / and: but G a but and ka,

to / h: RU to a ru h ka,

X / sh: mu X a mu sh ka,

d / and: in d go in and y,

t / h: cru t it kru h y,

h / and: in h go in and y,

With / sh: but With it but sh y,

b / bl: lu b it lu bl Yu,

P / pl: ku P it ku pl Yu,

in / ow: lo in it lo ow Yu,

f / fl: gra f it gra fl Yu,

m / ml:core m it cor ml Yu.

In addition, it is possible to alternate vowel and combinations vowel with consonant:

and I) / them: sn I t ch them at,

and I) / in: and a be — pl in at,

and / oh: b and be — b oh,

e / oh: P e be — P oh.

Classification of Russian morphemes

All morphemes are divided into root and foliar derivational(prefix and derivational suffix) and shaping(end and formative suffix).

Root

The fundamental difference between the root and other types of morphemes is that root the only obligatory part of a word. There are no words without a root, while there are a significant number of words without prefixes, suffixes ( table) and without endings ( kangaroo). The root can be used, unlike other morphemes, out of combination with other roots.

The definition of the root as "the common part related words” is true, but not an exhaustive description, since the language has a sufficient number of roots that occur in only one word, for example: cockatoo, very, Alas, many proper nouns naming geographic names.

Often, when defining a root, it is indicated that it "expresses the main lexical meaning of the word." For most words, this is indeed the case, for example: table-ik small table. However, there are words in which the main component of the lexical meaning is not expressed in the root or is not expressed at all by any particular morpheme. So, for example, in the word matinee main component of lexical meaning children's holiday is not expressed by any of the morphemes.

There are many words that consist only of the root. These are official words but, over if), interjections ( yeah, hello), many adverbs ( very, very), immutable nouns ( aloe, attache) and invariable adjectives ( beige, raglan). However, most roots are still used in combination with formative morphemes: part-a, good-th, go.

Roots that can be used in a word alone or in combination with inflections are called free. There are 6 such roots in the language. Those roots that can only be used in combination with affixes are called related, for example: about-y-t raz-y-t, agitation-irova-t agit-atsij-ya.

For some examples of artistic, journalistic literature and colloquial speech one may get the impression that words consisting only of prefixes or suffixes are possible, for example: " Democracies, humanisms go and go for isms isms "(V. V. Mayakovsky). But this is not so: in similar cases the suffix turns into a root and, together with the ending or without it, forms a noun.

Word-forming morphemes: prefix, suffix

Non-root morphemes are divided into derivational(word-forming) and shaping(shaping).

Word-formers non-root morphemes serve to form new words, morphemes, shaping for the formation of word forms.

There are several terminological traditions in linguistics. The most common is the terminology in which all non-root morphemes are called affixes. Further, affixes are subdivided in it into derivational affixes and inflections. Another fairly authoritative tradition assigns the term affixes only to word-forming morphemes.

Word-formers Morphemes are divided into prefixes and suffixes. They differ in their place in relation to the root and to other morphemes.

Console derivational morpheme before the root or another prefix ( pen-do, pre-pretty, at- the sea, something-where, pen-about-child).

derivational suffix derivational morpheme after the root ( table- ik, red- e-th).

In linguistics, along with the suffix, there are also postfix a derivational morpheme after the ending or formative suffix ( wash- Xia, whom- or ).

Prefixes are more autonomous in word structure than suffixes:

1) prefixes can have a secondary, more weak accent: UV,

2) they don't call grammatical alternations in a root unlike suffixes, which can cause similar alternations: hand-a hand-to-a,

3) by adding only one prefix, a word of another part of speech cannot be formed, unlike suffixes: the addition of a suffix may not change the part of the word ( house house-ik), and to form a word of another part of speech ( white white-e-t, white-out-a),

4) prefixes are often not associated with certain part speech ( under-work, under-sleep), while suffixes are usually assigned to a specific part of speech:- Nick- serves to form nouns, - Liv- adjectives, - willow- verbs),

5) the meaning of the prefix is ​​usually quite specific and only modifies the meaning of the original stem, while the meaning of the suffix can be either very specific (- yonok- denotes the cub of the one who is named in the root), and very abstract (- n- denotes an attribute of an object).

Formative morphemes: ending, formative suffix

Formative morphemes serve to form word forms and are divided into endings and formative suffixes.

Formative morphemes, like other types of morphemes, necessarily have a meaning. But these are meanings of a different kind than those of roots or word-forming morphemes: endings and formative suffixes express grammatical meanings words abstract meanings abstracted from the lexical meanings of words (gender, person, number, case, mood, time, degrees of comparison, etc.).

Endings and formative suffixes differing in the nature of the grammatical meaning they express

The ending

The ending new- th student), control ( brother's letter at i go- at, you go- eat ).

The ending a formative morpheme that expresses the grammatical meanings of gender, person, number and case (at least one of them!) and serves to link words in a phrase and sentence, that is, it is a means of agreement ( new- th student), control ( brother's letter at ) or connection of the subject with the predicate ( i go- at, you go- eat ).

There are only endings changing words. There are no endings service words, adverb, immutable nouns and adjectives. Changed words have no endings in those grammatical forms, in which the indicated grammatical meanings (gender, person, number, case) are absent, that is, for the infinitive and gerund.

Some compound nouns and compound numerals have several endings. This can be easily seen by changing these words: tr- and -st-a, tr-ex -hundred-, sofa-bed-, sofa-a -bed-and.

The end may be null. It stands out from the modified word if there is a certain grammatical meaning, but it is not materially expressed. Zero ending this is a significant absence of an ending, an absence that carries certain information about the form in which the word is. Yes, the ending a in the shape of table-a shows that this word is in genitive case, -at in table-at points to dative. The absence of an ending in the form table indicates that it is nominative or accusative, that is, carries information meaningfully. It is in such cases that the zero ending is allocated in the word.

One should not confuse words with a zero ending and words in which there are no and cannot be endings, immutable words. Only inflected words can have a null ending, that is, words that have non-zero endings in other forms.

Zero endings are widely represented in the language and are found in the noun, adjective and verb in the following positions:

1) nouns male 2 declensions in I. p. (V. p.) singular: boy I. p., table I. / V. p.;

2) nouns female 3 declensions in I. p. (V. p.) singular: night;

3) nouns of all genders in R. p. plural: countries, soldiers, swamps.

But in this position, non-zero endings can also be presented: night-her articles- . The correctness of parsing such words is achieved by declining the word. If the sound [y] disappears during declination, then it belongs to the ending: noch-her, noch-ami. If [y] can be traced in all cases, then it refers to the stem: articles become [y-a] become [y-a] mi. As we can see, in these forms the sound [й] is not expressed at the letter level, it is “hidden” in the iotized vowel. In this case, it is necessary to identify and identify this sound. In order not to clutter up the spelling with transcription brackets, it is customary in linguistics to designate the sound [й], “hidden” in an iotized vowel, with the help of j, without parentheses inscribed in Right place: article j-s .

A fairly common mistake is to determine the endings of words ending in -ya, -ya, -ya. The impression is incorrect that these sound complexes are endings. Two-letter endings in the initial form are present only for those nouns that are substantiated adjectives or participles. Compare:

genius, genius, genius

armyj- I, army j-she tables-th, tables-oh etc.

4) adjectives in short form singular masculine: handsome, smart;

5) possessive adjectives in I p. (V. p.) singular; despite the external similarity of the declension, qualitative and possessive have a different morphemic structure in these cases:

Such a morphemic structure of possessive adjectives is easy to understand, given that possessive adjectives denote a sign of belonging to a person or animal and are always derivative, formed using derivational suffixes -in-, -ov-, -ij- from nouns: mother ® mum-in -, fox ® fox-th -. AT indirect cases this possessive suffix - uy- is realized in [j], which is “hidden” in an iotized vowel;

6) verb in the form of the masculine singular in the past tense indicative mood and in the conditional mood: deeds-l- (would) cf.: deeds-l- a, deeds-l-and;

7) a verb in the imperative mood, where the zero ending expresses the meaning of the singular: write-and-, write-and-te;

8) in short participles null ending, like short adjectives, expresses the meaning of the masculine singular: read-n-.

formative suffix. Modifications of the verb stem

Another type of formative morphemes is formative suffix suffix used to form word forms.

In educational complex 2, the concept of a formative suffix is ​​introduced, in complexes 1 and 3 not, however, they say that “suffix is ​​a significant part of a word, which usually serves to form new words”; this “usually” is the idea that suffixes can serve not only for word formation, but also for shaping.

Basically, all formative suffixes are presented in the verb: these are the suffixes of the infinitive, past tense, imperative mood, participial and participle forms (if we consider the participle and gerund as forms of the verb, as complexes 1 and 3 do). Not in the verb, formative suffixes are presented in degrees of comparison of adjective and adverb.

Historically, most verbs have different two base modifications infinitive and present tense (for verbs perfect look future). In addition to them, you can sometimes talk about the basis of the past tense.

Since word forms that have the same stem (in terms of its constituent morphemes) are combined into a verb word, it is more correct to say that a verb can have several types of stem, each of which is used in a certain set of word forms. In other parts of speech, the stem may also have a different form in different words forms (for example, son sons), but for them it is the exception rather than the rule, while for verbs it is the rule rather than the exception. In this regard, not very successful word usage has been fixed, when different types of the same stem are called different stems.

To highlight stem of the infinitive, you need to separate the formative suffix of the infinitive: write, gnaw, splash, take(or save -Æ).

To highlight the basis of the present / simple future tense, it is necessary to separate the personal ending from the present / simple future tense; it is preferable to use the 3rd person plural form (since this stem itself in different forms may look different): write -ut, workj -ut, treat -at.

To highlight base of past tense, you need to discard the formative suffix of the past tense from the past tense form - l- or -Æ - and ending; it is preferable to use any form other than the form husband. kind of unit number, since it is in it that the zero suffix can be represented, which can complicate the analysis: carrying -l-a, writing -l-a.

Most verbs have two different types stems: one stem of the present / simple future, and the other the stem of the infinitive, as well as the past tense: chitaj - and chita -, risuj - and rice -, running - and run - talk - and say -. There are verbs that have the same bases of the present / simple future and the infinitive: ( id-ut, id-ti), and they are opposed to the basis of the past tense ( sh-l-a).

There are verbs in which all three stems are different: ter-t, ter-l-a, tr-ut; get wet, wet-l-a, wet-ut.

There are verbs in which all forms are formed from the same stem: carried -ty, carried -l-a, carried -ut; drove-ty, drove-l-a, drove-ut.

Various verb forms are formed from different bases.

From the stem of the infinitive are formed, in addition to indefinite form, personal and participle forms of the past tense (unless the verb has a different past stem) and conditional mood.

From the basis of the present / simple future tense, in addition to personal and participial forms of the present tense, forms of the imperative mood are formed.

This is clearly seen in those verbs in which the alternation of consonants is represented:

pis -t pis -l - (would) pis -vsh -y

write -y write -usch-y write -i-.

The verb contains the following formative suffixes:

1) infinitive formed by formative suffixes - t / -ti: read -t, carried -ti. The infinitives on -whose There are two ways to highlight inflection: bake or bake - Æ , where Æ zero formative suffix (historically in whose the end of the stem and the infinitive indicator proper overlapped) .

In educational complexes 1 and 3, the infinitive indicator is described as an ending. This is due to the fact that in these complexes, unlike complex 2, the concept of a formative suffix is ​​not introduced, and the part of the word without an ending is considered to be the basis, therefore, in order to exclude the infinitive indicator from the stem, it was given the status of the ending. This is not true, since the infinitive indicator does not have the grammatical meanings of gender, number, person or case that are mandatory for the ending and indicates only the infinitive the invariable verb form.

2) past tense indicative mood is formed by suffixes - l - (affairs - l- ) and - Æ - : carried - Æ - compare: carried - l-a.

3) the same suffixes are presented in conditional inclination: affairs - l- would, carried - Æ - would.

4) imperative mood formed by suffixes -and- (write - and- ) and -Æ - ( do - Æ -, sit down - Æ - ).

To clarify that forms like do and sit down are formed by a zero formative suffix, not a suffix * th,*-d, it must be remembered that the form of the imperative mood is formed from the basis of the present tense: write -u write -i. In verbs like read this is not so obvious, since the stems of the infinitive and the present tense differ only in the presence of the present tense in the stem j at the end of the base: read read. But the grammatical meaning is expressed by a morpheme that is not included in the stem. This morpheme is a zero formative suffix: read -Æ -(zero ending in this case has a singular value cf.: read -Æ -te).

5) participle ash - (-box -), -sh - (-sh -), -sh -, -sh -, -im -, -om - / -em -, -nn -, -onn - / -enn -, - t-: run- yi-y, take - t th (graphic variants of suffixes after soft consonants are indicated in brackets; alternating suffixes through a slash) .

6) gerund how special form the verb is formed by suffixes - a (-i), -in, -shi, -lice, -uchi (-yuchi): doing j - I, bud - teach.

7) simple comparative adjectives and adverbs are formed with the help of suffixes - e (high - e), -ee / -ee (quick - her), -she (before - she), -same (deep - same) ;

8) simple superlative adjective comparison is formed with the help of formative suffixes - eysh - / -aysh - (fast - eysh-th, high - aish-th).

As we can see, not only the ending can be zero, but also the formative suffix, which stands out when there is no material expressed meaning mood or tense of some verbs:

a) a suffix that forms the past tense of the indicative mood and the conditional mood of a number of verbs in the masculine singular ( carried - Æ - ). In the same verbs, when forming forms of the feminine or neuter singular or plural, the suffix is ​​used -l- (carried -l-a);

b) the imperative mood suffix for a number of verbs, which were mentioned above ( do - Æ - , take out - Æ - ).

The foundation

All types of formative morphemes (ending, formative suffix) are not included in the stem of the word. The foundation is required element morphemic structure words expressing the lexical meaning of the word. Formative morphemes, expressing grammatical meanings, do not change the lexical meaning of the word.

For immutable words, the whole word forms the basis, for example: if, coat, yesterday. Modified words do not include endings and / or formative suffixes in the stem, for example: window-o, lying-th, dared-her, read-l-a, done-n-th.

The stem of a word can be interrupted by formative morphemes. These are the basics verb forms containing the word-forming reflexive suffix - sya / -sya (teach -l -a -ss), basics indefinite pronouns containing suffixes - then, -either, -something (to -th -either), the stems of some compound nouns ( sofa-a-bed-and) and complex numbers ( five-and-ten). Such bases are called discontinuous.

Principles of morphemic analysis of a word

Morphemic parsing of a word (parsing a word by composition) begins with the selection of the stem and formative morphemes ending and / or formative suffix (if any).

At the same time, it is necessary to remember about j, which can be "hidden" in an iotated vowel after a vowel, or separating mark. If it closes the stem of the word, it must be entered ( impression). If this is not done, you can make a mistake in the composition of the suffix or not notice the suffix in the word at all. So, for example, in Russian there is no suffix -*neither-, but there is a suffix - nij-: sing® ne-nij-e. the word is heaven contains the suffix - j-, which is not expressed at the literal level: under-heaven-is-j-e.

After that, the basis of the word must be divided into the root (roots) and word-forming morphemes, if they are in the word. In some teaching aids(in particular, in complex 2), the following procedure is proposed for this: the root is distinguished in the word as a common part related words, then what remains in the word is distinguished as a prefix (prefixes) and a suffix (suffixes) in accordance with our ideas about whether there is such a suffix or such a prefix in Russian. But such an analysis can lead to errors; there is not enough validity in its procedure. To avoid mistakes, the morphemic analysis of the stem must be connected with the analysis of word-formation.

The algorithm of stem morphemic parsing associated with its derivational parsing was substantiated by the Russian linguist Grigory Osipovich Vinokur (1896 1947).

What is base productivity? Under performance understand the education of a given basis from another basis at a synchronous level, in modern language. How do we know that one basis is formed, that is, derived from another? The meaning of a derived basis can always (and should) be explained through the meaning of the basis, which is a generating (basic) one for it, and not through direct indication on the object of extralinguistic reality designated by it. For example: table¬ table. Motivation: table it is a small table. The interpretation of a derived word necessarily includes the generating word (stem). This criterion is called the motivation criterion.

In the criterion of motivation, it is emphasized that the semantic connection between the derivative and the producer should be felt in the modern language (at the synchronous level). Historically, one word can be derived from another. So, for example, the word forget historically derived from the word to be, word capital from the word table. But for a modern native speaker, the semantic connections between them are destroyed. Meaning of the word capital cannot be explained through the meaning of the word table, therefore, they are not related by derivative relations. Word capital(similar forget) is non-derivative, which means that its basis is indivisible at the synchronous level, the root of this word is capitals. Mixing synchronous morphemic and etymological analysis of words in the study of the modern Russian language is unacceptable.

Algorithm for morpheme articulation of stem

In word formation, sometimes a prefix and a suffix are attached to the generating stem at the same time, for example, windowsill¬ window(there are no words in Russian * subwindow and * windowsill). But often word-forming morphemes are attached sequentially:

white ® white- e-ty ® on- turn white.

It turns out word-building chain, in each link of which a new word-forming morpheme is “put on” on the original generating stem. Therefore, in order not to be mistaken in the definition of the morphemic structure of a word, during its morphemic analysis, it is necessary to restore this word-formation chain and sequentially “remove” word-forming morphemes from the derived stem under study. To the word under study, its generating word (basis) is selected, from which it is formed, the closest in form and necessarily motivating in meaning to the word given for analysis (criterion of motivation). Then the stem of the generating word and the stem of the derived word are compared. The difference between them is the suffix (prefix) with which the word under study is formed. Further to the generating, if it is not a non-derivative word, it is necessary to select its generating. And so it is necessary to build a word-building chain "on the contrary" until it reaches a non-derivative word. When constructing each link in the chain, it is necessary to prove the correctness of its construction by explaining the value of each derivative through the value of its generator. For example:

you are healthy-e ¬ you are healthy-th ¬ healthy

Motivation: recovery same as get well(result) or recover(process), denotes an action or its result, get well become healthy.

Thus, the process of determining the morphemic composition through the word-formation chain does not begin with the selection of the root, but ends with it. From the word, as it were, affixes are “removed”; what is left is the root.

The only exception to this pattern words with related roots. Connected, as already mentioned, is a root that is not used independently, that is, only with formative morphemes, but is always found in conjunction with word-forming prefixes and suffixes, and can attach to itself various well-defined prefixes and / or suffixes. The analysis of such words is carried out through the construction morphemic squares, in which the given root must be used with another suffix (prefix), and the suffix (prefix) with another root:

about - at -th once - at -th

about - de -th — once - de -th

It is this algorithm of stem morphemic parsing: the construction of a word-building chain for words with a free root and the construction of a morphemic square for words with a connected root that should be used in the morphemic parsing of a word.

Connecting elements in a word (interfixes)

When connecting morphemes in a word, insignificant connecting elements can be used, called in linguistics interfixes. The main type of interfixes are connecting elements used in the formation of compound words: - about-(airplane), -e-(half-e-waters), -uh-(double decker),-ex-(three-storey),-and- (five-and-story). Such connecting vowels at the junction of roots are not morphemes in the generally accepted sense (although a number of linguists consider them morphemes with a special, connecting meaning). The stems of the word are not interrupted by connecting elements.

Sometimes the term "interfix" is used to describe more a wide range phenomena of all connecting elements used in word formation and inflection. At the same time, allocate the following types interfixes:

in word formation:

1) connecting elements used in the formation of compound words: - about-(airplane), -e-(half-e-waters), -uh-(double decker),-ex-(three-storey),-and- (five-and-story) and others,

2) consonants inserted between a root and a suffix or between two suffixes; - l-(resident),-in-(singer), -j-(coffee),-t-(argot-t-ichesy),-sh-(cine);

in shaping:

-j-(leaf-j-i),-ov-(son-ov-me),-er-(mat-er-and),-en-(tribe-en-a). The function of insignificant elements in inflection is also performed by vowels at the end of the verb stem, which have no meaning and close the verb stem: -a-(write),-e-(mountains),-about-(half-o-th), -and- (be in love).

How, with this understanding, is the question of the status of interfixes in morphemic analysis resolved? There is no consensus among linguistic scholars on this issue; interfixes different groups are classified in different ways.

Connecting vowels at the junction of roots (group 1) do not join either one or the other root and remain between morphemes; with morphemic articulation of a word, they can be distinguished by brackets, underlining or circling the connecting element with a circle: airplane -Æ ¬ himself + fly.

As for the interfixes of the second group used in word formation, there are three points of view:

1) leave them between morphemes ( ne (in) ets),

2) attach them to the root ( singer),

3) attach them to the suffix ( pe-vets).

Each of these points of view has arguments for and against. The algorithm of morphemic parsing adopted by us corresponds to the third point of view: the suffix is ​​that segment of the derived stem that distinguishes it from the generating stem, for example, ne- vets ¬ sing.

The interfixes used in the inflection of nouns are considered to be extensions of the root ( mother — mothers), and vowels at the end of the verb stem are designated as suffixes ( read).

Zero derivational suffix

Suppose that it is necessary to determine the morphemic composition of the word run. At first glance, it consists of a root and a zero ending. However, in this case the word run, like any non-derivative word, must directly and directly name some object of extralinguistic reality, be unmotivated. But it's not. Any native Russian speaker for an explanation of what is run, uses the following interpretation: "This is when they run." Indeed, nouns with an uncharacteristic meaning of an action or attribute are derivatives in Russian, they are formed from verbs or from adjectives: run® run- rel -I, walk® walk- enij -e, blue® syn- ev-a, strict® strictly awn. Similarly: run away® run, walk® move, blue® blue, quiet® silence. From verbs and adjectives, nouns were formed, which is possible only by adding suffixes. Indeed, these words also use a suffix. This suffix is ​​null.

To highlight zero derivational suffix two conditions are required:

1) the word must be derived, motivated by another word of the language (therefore, the word din does not have a zero suffix)

2) there must be a derivational meaning that can be expressed by a non-zero suffix, but in this case it is not materially expressed: run away ® run- Æ - , run ® run-relative.

With the help of a zero word-forming suffix, words are formed different parts speeches:

nouns

1) with the meaning of an abstract action, formed from verbs: explosion ® explosion- Æ - , come in ® input- Æ - . Alternative suffixes: -enij- (walking-enij-e), -rel- (running-relative) and others;

2) with the meaning of an abstract feature, formed from adjectives: blue ® blue- Æ - , deaf ® backwoods- Æ - . Alternative suffixes: -ev- (sin-ev-a), -in- (tish-in-a), -ost- (strict-ost);

3) with the meaning of an object or person related to the action (producing it, being its result, etc.), formed from the verb ( scale- Æ - ¬ scale) or two generating stems the stem of the noun and the stem of the verb: steamer- Æ - ¬ steam + walk, bungler- Æ - ¬ marriage + do. Alternative suffixes -nick-, -ets-: heat exchange-Nick¬ heat + exchange, farmer¬ earth + do;

adjectives:

1) from verbs: enter- Æ -th ¬ come in. Alternative suffix - n-: res-n-oh¬ cut;

2) from nouns: weekday Æ -th¬ Weekdays. Alternative suffix -n-: forest-n-oh ¬ forest.

There are other cases of null derivational suffixation, but they are less common.

In complex 1, the method of forming such words is called suffix-free; in complex 2, words of this kind are not considered at all.

Morphemic analysis (word analysis by composition)

In morphemic parsing of a word (parsing a word by composition), first the ending and the formative suffix (if any) are distinguished in the word, the stem is emphasized.

After that, the basis of the word is divided into morphemes.

As we have already said, two opposite approaches to the morphemic articulation of the stem are possible: formal-structural and formal-semantic.

essence formal structural morphemic analysis consists in the fact that the root is first of all singled out as a common part of related words. Then what goes up to the root, the student should be aware of as a prefix (prefixes) in accordance with the student's ideas about whether he met similar elements in other words. Same with suffixes. In other words, the main thing in the analysis is the effect of recognition by the student of morphemes, the external similarity of some parts of different words. And this can lead to massive errors, the reason for which is ignoring the fact that the morpheme is meaningful language unit. The lack of work to determine the meaning of morphemes leads to errors of two types, which have a different nature:

Errors in determining the root of a word are associated with the indistinguishability of the synchronous morphemic and historical (etymological) composition of the word. Moreover, complex 2 takes the indistinguishability of the modern and historical morphemic composition of words as a setting that sometimes helps in determining the correctness of spelling, which is quite consistent with the general spelling and punctuation orientation of the course and the textbook as a whole. So, in a textbook on theory, as an illustrative material, such an example of morphemic parsing of a word is given art(art). It is obvious that such an approach cannot contribute to the correct selection of the root in modern structure words and leads to the selection of insignificant segments in the basis.

Errors in the selection of prefixes and suffixes are associated with the algorithm of morphemic division with the majority of students thinking about a word as a string of morphemes that should be “recognized” as already encountered in other words. An extreme expression of parses of this kind cases like key(cf.: pilot), box (upholsterer). But even with a correctly defined root, one often has to deal with wrong definition the number and composition of prefixes and suffixes, if there are more than two of these morphemes in the word. This is due, firstly, to the morpheme division algorithm and, secondly, to the fact that in textbooks words with more than one prefix and / or suffix are practically not given.

The formal-structural approach to the morphemic articulation of a word is not exclusively an affiliation school practice. A similar approach has been taken in a number of scientific publications, for example, in the “Dictionary of Russian morphemes” by A. I. Kuznetsova and T. F. Efremova, where it is stated that “morpheme analysis does not depend much on word-formation, since it is usually used when dividing a word comparative method, which practically does not take into account what is formed from what.

The formal-structural approach is opposed to the approach formal semantic (formal semantic). Main installation this approach and the algorithm of morphemic parsing come from the works of G. O. Vinokur and consist in the continuity of morphemic articulation and word-formation parsing. The fact that this approach is expedient and even the only possible one has been written by many scientists and methodologists for many decades.

The approach of educational complexes to the question of the principles and algorithm of morphemic articulation is different: educational complexes 1 and 3 offer a formal semantic approach to the morphemic articulation of a word (complex 3 in more than complex 1), complex 2 is formal structural.

The algorithm for morphemic parsing of the stem consists in constructing a word-formation chain “on the contrary”: prefixes and suffixes are, as it were, “removed” from the word, while the root is singled out last. In parsing, it is always necessary to correlate the meaning of the derivative and the meaning of its generator; the generating basis in modern Russian is the motivating basis. If there is no relation of motivation between the meaning of the derivative and the meaning of the generating (in our view) word, the generating is chosen incorrectly.

In this way, order of word parsing by composition is:

1) highlight the ending, formative suffix (if they are in the word),

2) highlight the stem of the word part of the word without endings and formative suffixes,

3) highlight the prefix and / or suffix in the basis of the word through the construction of a word-formation chain,

4) highlight the root in the word.

Examples:

1) carpenter

Reasoning pattern:

carpenter verb form carpentry; the verb is in the past tense of the indicative mood, which is expressed by the formative suffix - l-, masculine singular, which is expressed by zero ending (compare: carpenter-and).

Basis carpentry-.

Verb carpentry formed from a noun a carpenter, motivated through it: carpentry be a carpenter; difference between base carpentry and a carpenter suffix - a-, alternation is presented in the basics b/h.

Noun a carpenter in modern language it is non-derivative, since it cannot be motivated through the word raft. Consequently, a carpenter / carpenter root.

So the word form carpenter has a zero ending with the meaning of the masculine singular, the formative suffix - l- with the meaning of the past tense of the indicative mood, the word-forming suffix - a- with the meaning of being what is named in the motivating basis, the root carpenter. stem carpentry.

:

carpentry l Ch. carpenter a be ¬ a carpenter, alternation b/h.

2) dressing

Reasoning pattern:

Dressing noun, ending - e(it is this segment of the word that changes when it is declined: dress up, dress up, dress up).

At the junction of the ending and the stem, the sound [y] is pronounced in all forms, which is “hidden” in the letter e standing after a vowel. Therefore, this sound belongs to the basis, closes it. Word stem dress up[j].

Word dressing derived from the verb dress: dressing the process of dressing is the same as dressing. The difference between the base dressing and verb stem clothing segment - neither[j]-, which is a word-forming suffix.

The verb to dress is derived from the verb dress and it matters imperfect form. Means of word formation suffix - wa-.

The verb to dress is non-derivative, but there are verbs in the language undress, re-dress with the same root, but different prefixes, therefore, we are dealing with a related root - de- and a prefix about-.

Thus, the word form dressing has an ending - e with the meaning of the nominative or accusative case of the singular, word-forming morphemes: suffix - neither[j]- with the meaning of an abstract action, suffix - wa- with the value of the imperfect form, the prefix about- and associated root - de-. stem dressing-.

Sample writing:

oh de wa nij e ¬ ode wa be ¬ oh de be(cf.: times de be).

At written analysis word-building chain can be removed in brackets. In simple cases, the procedure can be carried out orally and only the result is fixed write down the word with the morphemes highlighted in it.

Subject and basic concepts of word formation

word formation is called both the process of formation of derivative words, and the section of linguistics that studies this process.

Why are words formed in a language? The formation of new words can have several goals: the first goal is to designate the realities of reality by folding into one word syntactic constructions (switch what is turned off); the second goal is to move to a different syntactic position of one or another meaning (for example, nouns are formed from verbs with the meaning of an action like singing, which can act as the subject of the message, occupying the syntactic position of the subject); word formation can also be used to express stylistic characteristics words (cf. heaven heaven) and emotional-evaluative components of meanings (cf.: book little book). Word formation along with borrowing is essential way enrichment of the vocabulary of the Russian language. AT oral speech people, as well as in artistic and journalistic works often there is an author's word formation: a native speaker invents, constructs words that do not exist in the language, for the sake of language game to make your text more expressive. Most often, not new word roots are invented, but new word-formation derivatives are created according to the word-formation models available in the language.

Main word formation tasks as a section of linguistics are as follows:

1) establish whether the word is derivative in the modern language (at the synchronous level),

2) determine from what and how the given derivative word is formed.

Basic concepts word formation:

derivative (PN) basis,

producing (PS) base (or bases),

— means of word formation,

— way of word formation,

processes accompanying word formation.

Derivative basis a basis formally formed and motivated by the meaning of another basis (criterion of motivation): table-ik¬ table, table small table.

Production basis the closest in form to the derivative basis, through which the derivative basis is motivated, interpreted.

Means and method of word formation

means formation of a new word can serve derivational morpheme(prefix or suffix, as well as their combination simultaneous attachment to the generating base of the prefix and suffix, etc.).

But there is another means of forming a new word: with the generating base (foundations), some operations, which are the means of creating a new word, while word-forming morphemes are not used. Such operations include the following:

1) reduction of the generating base as a means of creating a new word (within the same part of speech): specialist® specialist;

2) addition components of generating stems with their possible reduction, which is accompanied by a rigid fixation of their sequence within the derived word, as well as a single stress: supermarket® store;

3) change in part-of-speech attribution of a word: at the adjective tea masculine, neuter, feminine singular and plural forms are presented, and the noun tea room Only feminine singular and plural forms.

To form a new word, a word-forming morpheme and an operational tool can be used simultaneously, for example: earth + do® land-e-del-ets(addition of generating bases + suffix).

The characteristic of the word-formation tool used to form new words underlies the classification ways of word formation:

Methods using word-forming morphemes as a means of word formation:

1) prefix: do ® pen-do,

2) suffix: blue® syn- ev-a,wash® wash- Xia , proud® proud- and-th- Xia ,

3) prefixed-suffixal: cup ® under-cup- Nick ,run away® once-run- Xia , talk® pen-howar- willow-th- Xia .

Ways using operational means of word formation:

1) reduction: deputy® deputy,

2) addition:

a) complex method: sofa + bed® sofa bed,

b) addition: forest + steppe® forest (o) steppe,

A kind of addition is sometimes distinguished in independent way union: crazy® crazy. As part of a derived word, the final morpheme of the first generating word becomes an interfix, and not a suffix or ending, as it was in the generating one: crazy.

c) addition with reduction (abbreviation): wall newspaper® wall newspaper, Ministry of Foreign Affairs® Ministry of Foreign Affairs

With abbreviation, it is possible to reduce the original words to the first sounds ( university), letters ( Moscow State University), initial parts (supply manager), the initial part of the first word and the first letters or sounds of other words ( city ​​department public education ® gorono), abbreviations are also words, formed by the compound the initial part of the first word with the uncontracted second ( savings bank) and the beginning of the first word with the beginning and/or end of the second ( trade mission® trade mission).

3) the transition of a word from one part of speech to another; the main type of such a transition is substantiation the transition of an adjective or participle into a noun: canteen(adj.) ® canteen(n.).

Mixed ways ways in which word-forming morphemes and operational means of word formation are used simultaneously: order + wear® order (o) nose(addition generating bases + suffixation).

Type cases run away® run, called in complex 1 non-suffix word formation, refer to suffix way. The suffix here, as already mentioned, is zero: run-Æ ¬ run away.

In the process of word formation, the following processes take place, which serve to adapt morphemes in a derived word:

1) alternating vowels and consonants: cat® cat-to-a(alternating b/h, zero sound / e), a lion® lioness(alternating in / in, e /#),

2) insertion of an insignificant connecting element (interfix); steam + walk® steam (o) move-Æ ,

3) stem truncation(it should not be confused with abbreviation as a way of word formation, in which abbreviation alone forms a new word): cut® cut-to-a,

The authors of Complex 3 introduce the concept of a word-formation model a model for creating a new word that lives in the Russian language and is understandable to everyone. Thus, the word-formation model _____ oval means "slightly": white-ovate, sour-ovate, rough-ovate.

The introduction of the concept of a word-formation model helps to understand system relations units in the language, its orderliness. However, what the authors call a word-formation model is actually a morphemic word structure scheme and describes both derivative words and non-derivative words with an associated root; e.g. schema time _____ describes as derived words break up, scatter, and non-derivative undress, undress. Indirect evidence that for the authors of the textbook, morphemic rather than word formation is more significant when using models, is the formulation of tasks using the concept of a word-formation model, for example: “Write down the words corresponding to these models: _____ ist: velvet-, waves-, voice-, shower-, grain-, ear, shoulder-, spots-". As we can see, for use in the word-formation model, the authors do not specify words PN stems, but ready-made roots, including those with already implemented alternation ( fragrant from spirit).

Methods of education independent parts speeches

The following main ways of forming independent parts of speech are presented in Russian:

Noun

1. prefixal, in which nouns are formed from nouns: city® at -city,

2. suffixal, in which nouns are formed from

nouns: table® table- ik,

adjectives: blue® syn- ev-a,blue-Æ ,

verbs: run away® run- rel -I, run-Æ ,

numerals: one hundred® cell- n-I, two® double- n-I,

adverbs: together® message- Nick, why® why- chk-a,

3. prefixed-suffixal, in which nouns are formed from

nouns: window ® windowsill,

verbs: serve ® co-serve,

adjectives: polar® for -polar-j -e,

4. addition, including with the abbreviation: forest + steppe ® forest(o)steppe, Moscow State University ® Moscow State University,

5. truncation: specialist ® specialist,

6. substantiation, at which there is a transition into nouns of adjectives and participles: ice cream, manager (substantivized participles, as already mentioned, can be considered suffixal derivatives of verbs),

7. addition with suffix: Earth + do® land(e)del- ec.

Adjective

1. prefixal, in which adjectives are formed from adjectives: huge® pre-huge,

2. suffixal, forming adjectives from

adjectives: blue® syn- enky,

nouns: autumn® autumn- n-th,

numerals: two® double- n-oh,

adverbs: inside® internal- enn-th,

3. prefixed-suffixal: Coast ® at -brezh-n-th,

4. addition: Russian + English ® Russian-English;

5. addition with suffix: crooked+ side ® crooked(o)side-Æ -uy

numeral

Numerals are formed from numerals in the following ways:

1. suffixal: two® dv- eleven, five® spot- eleven, two® dv- oj -e,

2. addition: three + one hundred ® three hundred;

Pronoun

Pronouns are formed from pronouns by prefixes none, not, something and suffixes - then, either, something:who® no one, no one , someone, anyone, anyone;

Verb

1. prefixal from verbs: run away® pro-run,

2. suffixal, in which verbs are formed from

adjectives: red® red- e-th,prominent® visible- e-t-x,

nouns: partisan® partisan- and -t,crowd® crowd- and -th-xia,

numerals: two® two- and -t(divide in two),

interjections: Oh® ah- a-th,

3. prefixed-suffixal, with which verbs are formed from

nouns: shadow® for -shadow-and -t, bankrupt® o-bankrupt-and-th-xia,

adjectives: straight® you-straight- and -t,

numerals: three® u-tro- and -t,

verbs: be in love ® under-love-iva-th,jump ® race-jump-Xia,call® re-called-iva-th-sya;

4. addition: work+ arrange® labor (o) to arrange,

5. addition with the addition of a word-forming morpheme: world + create ® u - world (o) create;

Adverb

1. prefixal from adverbs: for a long time® not for long, how® somehow,

2. suffixal

nouns: winter® winter- oh,

adjectives: good® good- about,

numerals: three® tr- idly,

verbs: lie® lie- a,

adverbs: Good® good- enko,how® as- someday,

3. prefixed-suffixal, with which adverbs are formed from

adjectives: new® new- omu, old® from-long- a,

nouns: top® top- at,

numerals: two® in-two- eat,

verbs: catching up ® to catch up, gallop¬ in -jump-Æ

adverbs: for a long time® by-debt-y,

4. addition with suffix: past+ walk® passing- ohm.

Formation of words by moving from one part of speech to another

The words of some parts of speech were historically formed by the transition of words from one part of speech to another.

We have already called education nouns by passing adjectives and participles into them ( ice cream manager) substantiation. If the noun formed by the substantivation of the adjective does not have any differences in morphemic structure from these adjectives, then the noun formed by the substantiation of the participle differs from the corresponding participle in terms of its morphemic composition: in the noun, the suffix - utsch / -yushch, -ashch / -yashch is not formative (the noun is not a form of the verb) and is included in the stem. Therefore, in linguistics there is a description of the formation of such words by suffixation: manager ¬ manage, manager one who manages.

The transition from other parts of speech formed many adverbs. So, we can note adverbs formed by rethinking

nouns ( at home in spring),

adjectives ( in vain, out in the open),

gerunds ( sitting, lying),

numerals ( twice).

It must be understood that the transition of a word from one part of speech to another is a historical process. From the point of view of the current state of the language (from a synchronic point of view), all these words are formed using a suffix or prefix and a suffix homonymous to the ending of a noun, adjective or numeral, as well as the formative suffix of the participle form of the verb, for example: winter- oh ¬ winter, lying down a ¬ lie, by -empty ¬ empty.

The transition process is active during the formation of service words. For example, the following groups can be called pretexts, formed by the transition from other parts of speech:

nouns: in view, in the form, during, at the expense of, about,

verbal: thanks to, including, excluding, starting, after,

adverbs: near, around, opposite, far away.

At the same time, the distinction between a preposition and an adverb is possible only in the context and depends on the real presence or absence of following noun: I looked around(adverb) I walked around the house(pretext). The distinction between a derivative preposition and a gerund is based on the difference in their meaning a derivative verbal preposition expresses the meaning of a relation, for example: Thanks to the hosts, the evening was a success.(preposition) We left, thanking the hosts for their hospitality.(germs). As for denominative prepositions, the degree of their departure from independent words different. In a number of cases, prepositions have become absolutely isolated and have lost their semantic connection with the base noun, for example: in view of, in the course of, by, about, as far as; in modern language, these prepositions should be considered non-derivative. In other cases, semantic connections are alive: as, in the field, with the help of, in favor of. Such suggestions are called prepositional combinations because they keep some syntactic properties noun: selective compatibility ( in the role of whom in the function of what), the ability to accept the definition ( act in the dubious role of appeaser). In these cases, we are dealing with a living process of "proposing" nominal combinations.

From point of view state of the art language, the following ways of forming prepositions can be distinguished:

1) suffix from verbs: except- I ¬ exclude,

2) prefix-suffix from nouns: during ¬ time,

3) addition from prepositions: due to ¬ from + per.

The material concerning the formation of words of one part of speech from words of another part of speech clearly shows the necessity and ways of distinguishing between historical and synchronic derivativeness.

Word-building analysis of the word

Word-formation analysis is carried out according to the following scheme:

Put the word under study in the initial form (for participle and gerund participle infinitive).

To the word under study, select a motivating word (words) that is closest in form and related in meaning to the word under study; explain the meaning of a derivative word through the meaning of the generating word (words); highlight the researched and producing (producing) bases.

In the word under study, highlight the means of word formation, if the word is formed by a prefix and / or a suffix.

Specify the method of word formation.

Indicate the processes accompanying word formation, if any:

alternation of vowels and consonants,

truncation of the generating base,

interfixation,

When parsing word-formation, it is necessary to pay attention to the following.

First, word formation and form formation should not be confused. So, it is impossible to describe the past tense of the verb, participle or gerund as words formed from the infinitive (for example, was reading, reading, reading from read). In this case, we are dealing with forms of the same verb, that is, with the same word. It is to avoid errors of this kind that the word under study is first put in its initial form.

The generating stem must also be in the initial form (for example, windowsill¬ window, but not * under the window), the only exceptions are cases of fusion ( crazy ¬ crazy) and substantivation ( student n. ¬ student incl.).

Secondly, in the course of word-formation analysis, it is necessary to correctly determine the generating stem the closest motivating stem in form. An analysis will be erroneous in which the initial non-derivative word of the word-formation chain will be indicated as the generating basis, and not the direct generating word of the word under study. So, for example, for the word steamboat its producing basis will be the word steamer not words steam and walk. Means of word formation steamboat suffix - n-, method suffixation.

Thirdly, one should not clutter up the word-formation analysis with a complete morphemic analysis of the word under study. Extra operations indicate a misunderstanding of the task of word-formation parsing and its difference from morphemic parsing. In the word under study, only the stem and the morpheme (morphemes) that are directly involved in word formation should be singled out.

AT rare cases the word under study can be at the same level of derivative from two different bases, for example: sadly ¬ fun / unhappy. In these cases, we speak of double motivation. given word. It can also be described as a prefix derivative of the word fun, and as a suffixal derivative of the word unhappy.

Here are a few examples word-formation parsing:

1) excess

frills about ¬ redundant; excess something superfluous ;

the process that accompanies word formation, truncation of the PN stem.

2) rushed about verb form rush about

rush about ¬ rush about; to rush about start to rush about,

way of word formation prefixed.

3) care

care noun form care

care- Æ ¬ leave; departure when they leave, the same as leaving,

way of word formation suffixation,

truncation of the PS base,

alternation d/d.

4) snow scooters noun form snow scooter

snow(o)cat Æ ¬ snow + ride, snow scooter what they ride in the snow,

way of word formation addition with suffixation,

processes accompanying word formation:

interfixation

truncation of the PN of the stem of the verb.

Reflection of the morphemic composition of the word and its word-formation relations in dictionaries

There are special private (aspect) dictionaries that reflect the morphemic composition of the word and its derivational derivation. These dictionaries are private (aspect) linguistic dictionaries.

To work with morphemic composition words, there are dictionaries that describe the compatibility and meaning of the sea (A. I. Kuznetsova, T. F. Efremova "Dictionary of morphemes of the Russian language", T. F. Efremova " Dictionary word-building units of the Russian language).

Word-building relationships between words are reflected in word-building dictionaries, the most complete of which is A. N. Tikhonov's "Derivational Dictionary of the Russian Language" in 2 volumes.

In these dictionaries, non-derivative words are arranged alphabetically, to which word-formation chains are built, taking into account all derivatives of this word. non-derivative basis. non-derivative word with all its derivatives is called a derivational nest. As an example, let's take a derivational nest of the word happy:

Comprehensive information about the word is contained, for example, in the "Dictionary-reference book on the Russian language: spelling, pronunciation, stress, word formation, morphemic, grammar, word frequency" by A. N. Tikhonova, E. N. Tikhonova, S. A. Tikhonova .

There are also versions of morphemic and word-building dictionaries adapted specifically for schoolchildren, for example, A.N. Tikhonov’s “School word-building dictionary of the Russian language”, M.T. School vocabulary structures of Russian words” Z. A. Potikha, dictionaries presented in school textbooks.

Morphemics- a branch of linguistics that studies the system of morphemes of a language and the morphemic structure of words and their forms.

Morphemics deals with two main questions:
1) how the morphemes of the Russian language are classified,
2) how the word is divided into morphemes, that is, what is the algorithm for morphemic division.

The basic unit of morphemic is the morpheme.

Morpheme- this is the minimum significant part of the word (root, prefix, suffix, ending).

Classification of Russian morphemes

All morphemes are divided into root and non-root morphemes. Non-root morphemes are divided into word-forming (prefix and word-forming suffix) and form-forming (ending and form-forming suffix).

Root

The fundamental difference between the root and other types of morphemes is that root- the only obligatory part the words. There are no words without a root, while there are a significant number of words without prefixes, suffixes ( table ) and without endings ( kangaroo ). The root can be used, unlike other morphemes, out of combination with other roots.

There are many words that consist only of the root. These are official words but, over if ), interjections ( yeah, hello ), many adverbs ( very, very ), immutable nouns ( aloe, attache ) and invariable adjectives ( beige, raglan ). However, most of the roots are still used in combination with formative morphemes: part-a, good-th, go-ty.

Word-forming morphemes: prefix, suffix

Non-root morphemes are divided into word-forming (word-forming) and formative (form-forming).

Word-forming non-root morphemes serve to form new words, morphemes, formative - to form word forms.

Word-forming morphemes are divided into prefixes and suffixes. They differ in their place in relation to the root and to other morphemes.

Console- a derivational morpheme that stands before the root or another prefix (re-do, pre-pretty, seaside, in some places, re-do).

Suffix- derivational morpheme, standing after the root (table- ik , red- e- t).

In linguistics, along with the suffix, there are also postfix- a derivational morpheme standing after the ending or formative suffix (mind-th- Xia , whom- or ).

Formative morphemes: ending, formative suffix

Formative morphemes serve to form word forms and are divided into endings and formative suffixes.
Endings and formative suffixes differ in the nature of the grammatical meaning they express

The ending

The ending- a formative morpheme that expresses the grammatical meanings of gender, person, number and case (at least one of them!) And serves to connect words in a phrase and sentence, that is, it is a means of agreement (new th student), management (letter brother- y) or connection of the subject with the predicate (I id- at , you go- eat ).

Only modified words have endings. Functional words, adverbs, invariable nouns and adjectives have no endings. Changed words do not have endings in those grammatical forms that do not have the indicated grammatical meanings (gender, person, number, case), that is, the infinitive and gerund.

Some compound nouns and compound numerals have several endings. This can be easily seen by changing these words: tr- and -st- a , tr- ex -hot-, sofa -bed-, sofa- a -bed- and .

The end may be null. It stands out from the modified word if there is a certain grammatical meaning, but it is not materially expressed.

Zero ending- this is a significant absence of an ending, an absence that carries certain information about the form in which the word is. Yes, the ending a table-shaped a shows that this word is in the genitive case, - at on the table- at indicates the dative case. The absence of an ending in the form of a table indicates that this is a nominative or accusative case, that is, it carries information that is meaningful. It is in such cases that the zero ending is allocated in the word.

You must not confuse words with a zero ending and words in which there are no and cannot be endings - immutable words. Only inflected words can have a null ending, that is, words that have non-zero endings in other forms.

formative suffix. Modifications of the verb stem

Another type of formative morphemes is a formative suffix - a suffix that serves to form word forms.
Basically, all formative suffixes are presented in the verb: this suffixes of the infinitive, past tense, imperative, participial and participle forms. Non-verb formative suffixes are represented in degrees of comparison of adjectives and adverbs.

Most verbs have two different kinds of stem: one is the present/future simple stem, and the other is the infinitive stem as well as the past tense: read j - and chita - , rice - and rice - , run - and running - , dialect - and speak - .

There are verbs that have the same bases of the present / simple future and the infinitive: ( id -ut, id -ti), and they are opposed to the basis of the past tense ( sh -l-a).

There are verbs in which all three stems are different: tere- th, ter- l-a, tr- ut; weep- th, mok- l-a, wet- ut.

There are verbs in which all forms are formed from the same stem: carried ty, carried l-a, carried ut; carried ty, carried l-a, carried ut.

Different verb forms are formed from different stems.

From the stem of the infinitive, in addition to the indefinite form, personal and participial forms of the past tense (if the verb does not have a different stem of the past tense) and the conditional mood are formed.

From the basis of the present / simple future tense, in addition to personal and participial forms of the present tense, forms of the imperative mood are formed.

This is clearly seen in those verbs in which the alternation of consonants is represented:
write- t - write- l- (would - write- vsh-th
write y - write usch-th - write and- .

The foundation

All types of formative morphemes (ending, formative suffix) are not included in the stem of the word.

The foundation- this is an obligatory element of the morphemic structure of the word, expressing the lexical meaning of the word. Formative morphemes, expressing grammatical meanings, do not change the lexical meaning of the word.

For immutable words, the whole word is the basis, for example: if, coat, yesterday. Changed words do not include endings and / or formative suffixes in the stem, for example: window- about, lying- th, dare- her, read- l-a, did- nn-th.

The stem of a word can be interrupted by formative morphemes. These are the basics of verb forms containing the word-forming reflexive suffix -sya / -sya ( teach- l-a-s), bases of indefinite pronouns containing suffixes - something, - either, - anything ( to- hoo), the bases of some compound nouns ( sofa- a- bed- i) and complex numbers ( heel- and- ten- and). Such bases are called discontinuous.

Morphemic analysis (word analysis by composition)

Morphemic analysis is carried out according to the following plan:
1. Determine what part of speech the word is; indicate its base and ending.
2. Install lexical meaning words and determine how it is formed (from which word and with the help of which morphemes); indicate prefixes, suffixes and the root of the word.

Sample morpheme parsing

carpenter

Sample reasoning:
carpenter - a form of the verb carpenter; the verb is in the past tense of the indicative mood, which is expressed by the formative suffix -l-, masculine singular, which is expressed by the zero ending (compare: carpenter-i).

The foundation- carpenter-.

The verb carpentry is formed from the noun carpenter, motivated through it: carpentry - ‘to be a carpenter’; the difference between the base carpenter and the carpenter is the suffix -a-, in the bases the alternation of k / h is represented.
The noun carpenter in the modern language is non-derivative, since it cannot be motivated through the word raft. Therefore, carpenter / carpenter is the root.

Thus, the word form carpenter has a zero ending with the meaning of the masculine singular, the formative suffix -l- with the meaning of the past tense of the indicative mood, the word-forming suffix -a- with the meaning of being what is named in the motivating stem, the root carpenter. The basis of the word carpenter is.