1.8 System structure society elements and subsystems. Bogbaz10, §2, 18-21; Bogprof10, §10, 90-91, 99-101, 102-106.

In a narrow sense, society:

1) a group of people, united for communication and joint performance of any activity;

2) specific stage in historical development people or country.

AT broad sense society:

3) it is isolated from nature, but closely related to it part material world , which consists from individuals having will and consciousness, and includes waysinteractions people and forms them associations;

4) dynamic self-developingsystem, that is, such a system that is capable of seriously changing, at the same time retaining its essence and qualitative certainty.

society

System

Subsystem- an "intermediate" complex, more complex than the element, but less complex than the system itself.

The subsystems of society are called spheres public life:

economic (its elements are material production and relations arising in the process of production, exchange and distribution wealth);

social (classes, social strata, nations, their relationships and interaction with each other);

political (politics, law, state, their correlation and functioning);

spiritual (covers the forms and levels of social consciousness that form the phenomenon of spiritual culture).

All areas are interconnected

Function(from lat

Public relations
Types of public relations:

:
1) social communities;

10.1. What distinguishes society from society?
10.2. What is a system?
10.2.1. Definitions: system, element, function, structure.
10.2.2. Classification of systems.
10.3. Features of the social system.
10.4. What is the social system made of?
10.4.1. spheres of public life.
10.4.2. Public relations.
10.4.3. Social communities; social institutions and organizations; social roles, norms and values.
10.5. Creators systems approach: Bogdanov, von Bertalanffy, Parsons.

10.1 . What distinguishes society from society?
1) Society(in the narrowest sense) - a group of people united for communication, joint activities, mutual assistance and support for each other (“book lovers society”, “noble society”).
2) Society - a certain country or a whole community of states (“Western European society”, “ Russian society»).
3) Society - historical type societies (" feudal society», « industrial society»).
4) Society(society in the broadest sense) - the totality of all ways of interaction and forms of unification of people.
5) society- sociality as such, non-natural reality, different from living and inanimate nature. In this sense, the social is one of the subsystems of the world as a whole.

Society- it is isolated from nature, but closely with it related part the material world, which includes the ways of interaction between people and the forms of their association.
10.2 . What is a system?
10.2.1. System(from Greek Systema) is a set or combination of parts and elements that are interconnected and interact in a certain way with each other.
Talk about solar system, river system, nervous system. A system is any set of phenomena that are interconnected and interact with each other. In this sense, the system is also that unity, the constituent parts of which are society and nature.
System is a complex of interacting elements.
Element(from lat. elementum - element, original substance) – 1) component complex whole; 2) some further indecomposable component of the system that takes direct participation in its creation.
Structure(from lat. structura - location, structure) - 1) the location and connection of the parts that make up the whole; 2) internal organization something; 3) system, form, model, organization.
Function(from lat. functio - execution, implementation) - 1) activity, duty, work; outward manifestation properties of any object in a given system of relations (eg, the function of the sense organs, the function of money); 2) function in sociology - the role that a certain social institution or process performs in relation to the whole (for example, the function of the state, family, etc. in society).
What comes first, structure or function??
The traditional view of a system is that its properties and behavior are entirely determined by its structure, i.e. the functioning of the system is secondary to its structure. AT recent times under the influence of synergetics, the function is put in the first place, then the structure (functioning process) and only after that - the material (element) that ensures the functioning.
10.2.2. System classification:
Relation of the system to the environment:
1) open (there is an exchange of resources with the environment);
2) closed (no exchange of resources with the environment).
By the origin of the system (elements, connections, subsystems):
1) artificial (tools, mechanisms, machines, machine guns, robots, etc.);
2) natural (living, non-living, ecological, social, etc.);
3) virtual (imaginary and, although not really existing, but functioning in the same way as if they existed);
4) mixed (economic, biotechnical, organizational, etc.).
According to the description system variables :
1) with qualitative variables (having only a meaningful description);
2) with quantitative variables (having discretely or continuously quantitatively described variables);
3) mixed (quantitative-qualitative) description.
According to the type of description of the law (laws) of the functioning of the system:
1) type "Black box" (the law of the system functioning is not completely known; only input and output messages are known);
2) not parameterized (the law is not described; we describe using at least unknown parameters; only some a priori properties of the law are known);
3) parameterized (the law is known up to parameters and it can be attributed to a certain class of dependencies);
4) type "White (transparent) box" (the law is fully known).
By system management method (in the system):
1) externally controlled systems (without feedback regulated, managed structurally, informationally or functionally);
2) managed from within (self-managing or self-regulating - programmatically controlled, automatically regulated, adaptable - adaptable with the help of controlled changes in states, and self-organizing - changing their structure in time and space in the most optimal way, ordering their structure under the influence of internal and external factors);
3) with combined control (automatic, semi-automatic, automated, organizational).
By sphere of existence: material (physical, biological, chemical) and ideal (mental, cognitive, logical).
10.3 . Principles (traits) human society how systems:
1) complexity (there are extremely many elements that form it and the connections between them);
2) hierarchy (any of the existing spheres of society, being a subsystem in relation to society, at the same time acts as a complex system itself) = society - a complex system, a supersystem;
3) integrativity (none of the components of the system, considered separately, has the quality inherent in society as a whole);
Just as individual human organs (heart, stomach, liver, etc.) do not have the properties of a person, so the economy, the health care system, the state and other elements of society do not have the qualities that are inherent in society as a whole. And only thanks to the diverse connections that exist between the components of the social system, it turns into a single whole, i.e. into society (just as thanks to the interaction of various human organs there is single organism person).
4) self-sufficiency (the ability of society to create and reproduce the necessary conditions own existence)
5) self-governance (society changes and develops as a result of internal causes and mechanisms);
6) openness (interaction with the external environment);
The environment of the social system of any country is both nature and global community.
7) the main element of society is a person who has the ability to set goals and choose the means to achieve them, a person is universal element all social systems;
« human-sized» systems are holistic complex open self-organizing dynamic systems, the most important element of which is a person. Such systems include biomedical formations, objects of ecology, including the biosphere as a whole ( global ecology), objects of biotechnology (primarily genetic engineering), man-machine systems.
8) dynamism (society is in constant change);
9) unpredictability, non-linearity of development (the possibility of various options and models of future development).
Society is dynamic self-developing system, i.e. a system that is capable of retaining its essence and qualitative certainty in the process of change.
dynamic system – mathematical object, corresponding real systems(physical, chemical, biological, etc.), the evolution of which is uniquely determined by the initial state.
10.4 . What is the social system?
Society is heterogeneous and has its own internal structure and composition, including big number different order social phenomena and processes. The constituent elements of society are people, social relations and actions, social interactions and relations, social institutions, social groups, communities, social norms others
10.4.1. It is customary to consider the spheres of public life as subsystems of society:

1) economic (material production and relations that arise between people in the process of production of material goods, their exchange and distribution);

2) social (classes, social strata, nations);

3) political (politics, state, law);

4) spiritual (forms and levels of social consciousness, which in the process of social life form what is commonly called spiritual culture).
These subsystems (spheres), in turn, can be represented by a set of their constituent elements:
1) economic - production institutions (plants, factories), transport institutions, stock and commodity exchanges, banks, etc.,
2) political - the state, parties, trade unions, youth, women's and other organizations, etc.,
3) social - classes, strata, social groups and strata, nations, etc.,
4) spiritual - the church, educational institutions, scientific institutions etc.
Why society consists of four spheres?
Talcott Parsons:
Any social system contains two fundamental "axes of orientation": 1) internal - external; 2) instrumental - consummatory.
The first axis means that this system is oriented either towards solving its own internal problems, or react to the influence of the external environment. The second - means that the system is striving to achieve situational goals or to meet basic strategic needs.
The imposition of these axes on each other gives four fundamental categories: 1) adaptation to the external environment (outside - ins); 2) achievement of the goal (outside - con); 3) integration (vnu - con); 4) preservation of order, maintenance of the sample, latency (vnu - ins). These four main functions, which are commonly referred to as the "Agil circuit" ( AGIL), correspond to special institutions (subsystems) of society.
Economic subsystem - adaptation ( A daptation); political subsystem – achievement of goals ( G oal); social sphere - integration ( I integration); spiritual sphere (family, school, religion) - maintaining order ( L atent).
Is there a determining factor among the spheres of social life??
1) Carl Marx:
Changes in production, property relations cause significant changes in other areas of life;
Mode of production material life determine the social, political and spiritual processes of life in society.
2) Max Weber:
The spiritual values ​​of Protestantism played a major role in the birth of capitalism as economic system;
Protestantism, which gave a moral justification to wealth, business success, became the reason for the rapid development of entrepreneurial activity.
10.4.2. Public relations.
To characterize society as a system, it is not enough to single out its subsystems and elements. It is important to show that they are in mutual connection with each other. The term "public relations" is used to designate these connections.
Public relations- multiple links between social groups, nations, as well as within them in the process of economic, social, political, cultural activities. Determine existing parties personal relationships of people connected by direct contacts.
Types of public relations:
1) material: about the production, distribution, exchange and consumption of material goods;
2) spiritual: political, ideological, legal, moral, etc.
10.4.3. In another connection, when the character, type social connections, society as a social system includes the following subsystems:
1) social communities;
2) social institutions and organizations,
3) social roles, norms and values.
Each of them here is a fairly complex social. a system with its own subsystems.
10.5 . Creators of the systems approach:
10.5.1. Alexander Alexandrovich Bogdanov(1873 - 1928) - Russian philosopher, politician, writer, doctor.
Belonged to the social democratic trend in Russian revolutionary movement. Rejected Lenin's doctrine of imperialism as the eve socialist revolution, believing that "the class consciousness of the proletariat has not matured" and an immediate revolution will only lead to the destruction of the productive forces of society.
Not accepted October revolution, but continued to cooperate with the Bolsheviks on the organization of medical affairs. He organized the country's first Institute of Blood Transfusion. Died as a result of self-imposed medical experiment.
The main thing philosophical work – « Tectology» (1912). It contains the main ideas modern theory systems.
10.5.2. Ludwig von Bertalanffy(1901 - 1972) - Austrian biologist and natural philosopher.
Applied the principles of the theory open systems to describe and solve a number of problems theoretical biology and genetics.
The main tasks of the program he proposed for constructing general theory systems considered: 1) formulation general principles and laws of behavior of systems, regardless of their special kind and the nature of their constituent elements; 2) creating the basis for synthesis scientific knowledge as a result of revealing isomorphism (similarity, similarity) of laws relating to different spheres of reality.
10.5.3. Talcott Parsons (1902 – 1979) – American sociologist.
Major works: "Structure social action"(1937)," social system"(1951).
Parsons tried to do in sociology what Einstein tried to do in physics - to create a comprehensive theory that would explain all levels of society and all forms of its movement. What he tried to create resembles not even a theory, but sociological paradigm or a perspective that does not have a strict logic, but strikes with its encyclopedic and creative potential. Parsons, like Einstein, failed. However, he created a gigantic system of abstract concepts covering human reality in all its diversity.

We live in a human world. Our desires and plans cannot be realized without the help and participation of those who surround us, are nearby. Parents, brothers, sisters and other close relatives, teachers, friends, classmates, neighbors - they all make up our closest social circle.

Please note: not all of our desires can be realized if they run counter to the interests of others. We must coordinate our actions with the opinions of other people, and for this we need to communicate. Beyond the first round human communication there are further circles, which are getting wider. Beyond the immediate environment, we are waiting for meetings with new people, entire teams and organizations. After all, each of us is not only a member of the family, a tenant of the house, but also a citizen of the state. We may also be members of political parties, interest clubs, professional organizations etc.

The world of people, organized in a certain way, constitutes society. What society? Can any group of people be called this word? Society formed in the process of human interaction. Its signs can be considered the presence of the aggregate goals and objectives set for it, as well as activities aimed at their implementation.

So, society It's not just a random bunch of people. It has a core, integrity; it has a clear internal structure.

The concept of "society" is fundamental to social knowledge. AT Everyday life we use it quite often, for example, "he fell into bad society" or "these people are the elite - high society." This is the meaning of the word "society" in the ordinary everyday sense. It's obvious that key meaning of this concept is that it is - certain group people who are different special features and characteristics.

How is society understood? social sciences? What is its basis?

Science offers different approaches in resolving this issue. One of them consists in the assertion that the living cells are the original social cell. acting people whose joint activities form society. From this point of view, the individual is the primary particle of society. Based on the foregoing, we can formulate the first definition of society.

Society is a group of people who work together.

But if a society consists of individuals, then the question naturally arises whether it should not be considered as simple sum individuals?

Such a formulation of the question casts doubt on the existence of such an independent social reality as society as a whole. Individuals really exist, and society is the fruit of the conclusions of scientists: philosophers, sociologists, historians, etc.

Therefore, in the definition of society, it is not enough to indicate that it consists of individuals, it should also be emphasized that essential condition formation of society is their unity, community, solidarity, connection of people.

Society is a universal way of organizing social ties, interactions and relationships between people.

According to the degree of generalization, the broad and narrow meanings of the concept of "society" are also distinguished. In the broadest sense society it could be considered:

• isolated from nature in the process historical development, but a part of the material world closely associated with it;
• the totality of all interconnections and interactions of people and their associations;
• a product of the joint life of people;
• humanity as a whole, taken throughout human history;
• the form and way of joint life of people.

"Russian Sociological Encyclopedia", ed. G. V. Osipova gives the following definition of the concept of “society”: “ Society- it is determined in the process of historical development of mankind relatively stable system social ties and relations both between large and small groups of people, supported by the power of customs, traditions, laws, social institutions, based on certain way production, distribution, exchange and consumption of material and spiritual goods.

This definition seems to be a generalization of those particular definitions given above. Thus, in a narrow sense, this concept refers to any group of people in size that has common features and characteristics, for example, a society of amateur fishermen, a society of defenders wildlife, an association of surfers, etc. All "small" societies, as well as individuals, are the "bricks" of a "big" society.

Society as an integral system. The systemic structure of society. Its elements

AT modern science a systematic approach to understanding various phenomena and processes has become widespread. It arose in natural science, one of its founders was the scientist L. von Bertalanffy. Much later than in the natural sciences, the systematic approach was established in social science, according to which society is a complex system. In order to understand this definition, we need to clarify the essence of the concept of "system".

signs systems:

1. a certain integrity, commonality of the conditions of existence;
2. the presence of a certain structure - elements and subsystems;
3. the presence of communications - connections and relationships between the elements of the system;
4. interaction of this system and other systems;
5. qualitative certainty, i.e., a sign that allows you to separate a given system from other systems.

In the social sciences, society is characterized as dynamic self-developing system, i.e., such a system that is capable of seriously changing, at the same time retaining its essence and qualitative certainty. The dynamism of the social system includes the possibility of changing over time both society as a whole and its individual elements. These changes can be both progressive, progressive, and regressive in nature, leading to the degradation or even complete disappearance of certain elements of society. Dynamic properties are also inherent in the connections and relationships that permeate social life. The essence of changing the world was brilliantly captured Greek thinkers Heraclitus and Cratylus. In the words of Heraclitus of Ephesus, "everything flows, everything changes, you cannot enter the same river twice." Cratyl, supplementing Heraclitus, noted that "one and the same river cannot be entered even once." The living conditions of people are changing, the people themselves are changing, the nature of social relations is changing.

The system is also defined as a complex of interacting elements. An element, an integral part of the system, is some further indecomposable component that is directly involved in its creation. To analyze complex systems, like the one that society represents, scientists have developed the concept of "subsystem". Subsystems called "intermediate" complexes, more complex than the elements, but less complex than the system itself.

Society is complex system, as it includes a variety of constituent elements: subsystems that are themselves systems; social institutions, defined as a set social roles, norms, expectations, social processes.

As subsystems are the following areas of public life:

1. economic(its elements are material production and relations arising in the process of production, distribution, exchange and consumption of goods). This is a life support system, which is a kind of material basis for the social system. In the economic, economic sphere, it is determined what exactly, how and in what quantity is produced, distributed and consumed. Each of us is somehow involved in economic relations, plays his own role in them. specific role- the owner, producer, seller or consumer of various goods and services.
2. social(consists of social groups, individuals, their relationships and interactions). In this sphere, there are significant groups of people who are formed not only by their place in economic life but also by demographic (gender, age), ethnic (national, racial), political, legal, cultural and other characteristics. AT social sphere we allocate public classes, layers, nations, nationalities, various groups, united by sex or age. We distinguish people by the level of their material well-being, culture, education.
3. sphere social management, political(its leading element is the state). The political system of society includes whole line elements, the most important of which is the state: a) institutions, organizations; b) political relations, communications; c) political norms, etc. The basis of the political system is power.
4. spiritual(covers various forms and levels of social consciousness that give rise to the phenomena of the spiritual life of people, culture). The elements of the spiritual sphere - ideology, social psychology, education and upbringing, science, culture, religion, art - are more independent, autonomous than the elements of other spheres. For example, the positions of science, art, morality and religion can differ significantly in the assessment of the same phenomena, even be in a state of conflict.

Which of these subsystems is the most significant? Each scientific school gives its own answer to the question posed. Marxism, for example, recognizes as the leading, defining economic sphere. The philosopher S. E. Krapivensky notes that “it is economic sphere as a basis, integrates all other subsystems of society into integrity. However, this is not the only point of view. There is scientific schools, recognizing as a basis the sphere of spiritual culture.

Each of these spheres-subsystems, in turn, is a system in relation to the elements that make it up. All four spheres of public life are interconnected and interdependent. It is difficult to give examples of such phenomena that affect only one of the areas. Yes, great geographical discoveries led to significant changes in the economy, public life, culture.

The division of society into spheres is somewhat arbitrary, but it helps to isolate and study certain areas in a real way. whole society, diverse and complex social life; recognize different social phenomena, processes, relationships.

An important characteristic of society as a system is its self-sufficiency, understood as the ability of a system to independently create and recreate the conditions necessary for its own existence, as well as to produce everything necessary for people's lives.

Apart from the concept itself systems we often use the definition systemic, seeking to emphasize the single, holistic, complex nature of any phenomena, events, processes. So, for example, talking about recent decades in the history of our country, use such characteristics as " systemic crisis”, “system transformations”. Consistency of the crisis means that it affects more than one sphere, for example, political, public administration, but covers everything - both the economy and social relations and politics and culture. Same with systematic changes, transformations. At the same time, these processes affect both society as a whole and its individual areas. The complexity and systemic nature of the problems facing society requires a systematic approach to finding ways to resolve them.

Let us also emphasize that in its life, society interacts with other systems, primarily with nature. It receives external impulses from nature and, in turn, affects it.

Society and nature

With ancient times important issue in the life of society was its interaction with nature.

Nature- the habitat of society in all the infinite variety of its manifestations, which has its own laws that do not depend on the will and desires of man. Initially, man and human communities were an integral part of natural world. In the process of development, society became isolated from nature, but retained close connection with her. In ancient times, people were completely dependent on the outside world and did not claim a dominant role on earth. The earliest religions proclaimed the unity of man, animals, plants, natural phenomena - people believed that everything in nature has a soul and is connected family relations. So, for example, luck in hunting, the harvest, the success of fishing, and ultimately the life and death of a person, the well-being of his tribe depended on the weather.

Gradually people began to change the world for their economic needs - to cut down forests, irrigate deserts, breed domestic animals, build cities. It was as if another nature was created - special world, in which humanity lives and which has its own rules and laws. If some people tried, making the most of the surrounding conditions, to adapt to them, then others transformed, adapted nature to their needs.

In modern science, the concept is firmly established Environment . Scientists distinguish two types of environment in it - natural and artificial. Actually, nature is the first, natural environment habitat on which man has always depended. In the process of development of human society, the role and importance of the so-called artificial environment is increasing. "second nature", which is made up of objects created with the participation of a person. These are plants and animals bred thanks to modern scientific possibilities, nature transformed by the efforts of people.

Today, there are practically no places left on earth where a person would not leave his mark, would not change anything with his intervention.

Nature has always influenced human life. climate and geographical conditions- all these are essential factors that determine the path of development of a particular region. People living in different natural conditions, will differ both in their character and way of life.

The interaction of human society and nature has gone through several stages in its development. The place of a person in the surrounding world has changed, the degree of dependence of people on natural phenomena. In ancient times, at dawn human civilization, people were completely dependent on nature and acted only as consumers of its gifts. The first occupations of people, as we remember from the lessons of history, were hunting and gathering. Then people did not produce anything themselves, but only consumed what nature gave birth to.

Qualitative changes in the interaction of human society with nature are called technological revolutions. Each such revolution, generated by the development of human activity, led to a change in the role of man in nature. The first of these revolutions was neolithic revolution, or agricultural. Its result was the emergence of a producing economy, the formation of new species economic activity people - cattle breeding and agriculture. With the transition from an appropriating economy to a producing economy, a person was able to provide himself with food. Following agriculture and cattle breeding, handicrafts arise, trade develops.

The next technological revolution was industrial (industrial) revolution. Its beginning falls on the Age of Enlightenment. essence industrial revolution consists in the transition from manual to machine labor, in the development of large-scale factory industry, when machines and equipment gradually replace a number of human functions in production. The Industrial Revolution contributed to the growth and development major cities- megacities, development of new types of transport and communications, simplification of contacts between residents different countries and continents.

Witnesses of the third technological revolution were people who lived in the twentieth century. This is post-industrial, or informational, a revolution associated with the emergence of "smart machines" - computers, the development of microprocessor technologies, electronic means connections. The concept of “computerization” has firmly come into use - the massive use of computers in production and in everyday life. The World Wide Web appeared, which opened up huge opportunities for searching and obtaining any information. New technologies have significantly facilitated the work of millions of people and led to an increase in labor productivity. For nature, the consequences of this revolution are complex and contradictory.

The first centers of civilization arose in the basins of the great rivers - the Nile, the Tigris and the Euphrates, the Indus and the Ganges, the Yangtze and the Yellow River. The development of fertile lands, the creation of irrigated farming systems, etc., are experiences of the interaction of human society with nature. rugged coastline and the mountainous relief of Greece led to the development of trade, crafts, the cultivation of olive trees and vineyards, and in much lesser degree- grain production. Since ancient times, nature has influenced classes and social order of people. For example, the organization of irrigation works throughout the country contributed to the formation of despotic regimes, powerful monarchies; crafts and trade, the development of private initiative of individual producers led to the establishment of republican government in Greece.

With each new stage of development, mankind increasingly and comprehensively exploits natural resources. Many researchers note the threat of the death of earthly civilization. The French scientist F. Saint-Marc writes in his work “The Socialization of Nature”: “A four-engine Boeing flying along the Paris-New York route consumes 36 tons of oxygen. The supersonic Concorde uses over 700 kilograms of air per second during takeoff. The world's commercial aviation burns as much oxygen annually as two billion people consume it. The 250 million cars in the world require as much oxygen as the entire population of the Earth needs.”

Discovering new laws of nature, intervening more and more actively in the natural environment, a person cannot always clearly determine the consequences of his intervention. Under the influence of man, the landscapes of the Earth are changing, new zones of deserts and tundras are appearing, forests are being cut down - the "lungs" of the planet, many species of plants and animals are disappearing or are on the verge of extinction. For example, trying to turn steppe spaces into fertile fields, people created a threat of desertification of the steppe, the destruction of unique steppe zones. Fewer and fewer unique ecologically clean corners of nature remain, which have now become the object of close attention of travel companies.

The appearance of atmospheric ozone holes can change the atmosphere itself. Significant damage to nature is caused by the testing of new types of weapons, primarily nuclear ones. Chernobyl disaster 1986 has already shown us what devastating consequences can lead to the spread of radiation. Life almost completely perishes where radioactive waste appears.

The Russian philosopher I. A. Gobozov emphasizes: “We demand from nature as much as it, in essence, cannot give without violating its integrity. Modern machines allow us to penetrate into the most remote corners of nature, to remove any minerals. We are even ready to imagine that everything is permitted to us in relation to nature, since she cannot offer us serious resistance. Therefore, without hesitation, we invade natural processes, disrupt their natural course and thereby bring them out of equilibrium. Satisfying our selfish interests, we care little about future generations, which because of us will have to face enormous difficulties.

Exploring the consequences of unreasonable use natural resources, people began to comprehend all the perniciousness consumer attitude to nature. Mankind will have to create optimal environmental management strategies, as well as take care of the conditions for its further existence on the planet.

Society and culture

Closely related to the history of mankind are such concepts as culture and civilization. The words "culture" and "civilization" are used in different meanings, occur both in the singular and in plural, and the question involuntarily arises: “What is it?”

Let's look into dictionaries and try to learn from them about these widely used both in everyday life and in scientific speech concepts. In different explanatory dictionaries are given various definitions these concepts. First, let's look at the etymology of the word "culture". The word is Latin and means "cultivating the land." The Romans called this word the cultivation and care of the land, which could bring fruits useful to humans. In the future, the meaning of this word has changed significantly. For example, culture is already being written about as something that is not nature, something that has been created by humanity throughout its existence, about a "second nature" - a product of human activity. culture- the result of the company's activities for the entire time of its existence.

According to the Austrian scientist Z. Freud, “culture is everything in which human life rises above its biological circumstances, how it differs from the life of animals. To date, there are already more than a hundred definitions of culture. Some understand it as a process of gaining freedom by a person, as a way of human activity. With all the variety of definitions and approaches, they are united by one thing - a person. Let's try to formulate our understanding of culture.

culture- a creative way creative activity human, a way of accumulation and transmission human experience from generation to generation, its evaluation and comprehension; this is what separates man from nature and opens the way for his development. But it's scientific theoretical definition different from what we use in everyday life. We talk about culture when we mean certain human qualities: politeness, tact, respect. We consider culture as a certain reference point, a norm of behavior in society, a norm of attitude towards nature. At the same time, culture and education cannot be equated. A person can be very educated, but uncultured. Created, “cultivated” by man is architectural complexes, books, scientific discoveries, paintings, musical works. The world of culture is formed by the products of human activity, as well as the ways of the activity itself, values, norms of interaction between people and with society as a whole. Culture influences natural, biological properties and the needs of people, for example, the need for food is inextricably linked with high art cooking: people have developed complex rituals of cooking, formed numerous traditions national cuisine(Chinese, Japanese, European, Caucasian, etc.), which have become an integral part of the culture of the peoples. For example, who among us will say that the Japanese tea ceremony is just the satisfaction of a person's need for water?

People create culture and improve themselves (change) under its influence, mastering the norms, traditions, customs, passing them from generation to generation.

Culture is closely related to society, as it is created by people connected with each other. complex system public relations.

Speaking about culture, we always turned to the person. But it is impossible to limit culture to one person. Culture is addressed to a person as a member of a certain community, a collective. Culture in many ways forms the collective, "cultivates" the community of people, connects us with our departed ancestors. Culture imposes certain obligations on us, sets standards of behavior. Aiming for absolute freedom, we sometimes rebel against the institutions of our ancestors, against culture. In a revolutionary impulse or out of ignorance, we throw off the coating of culture. What then remains of us? A primitive savage, a barbarian, but not liberated, but, on the contrary, shackled in the chains of his darkness. Rebelling against culture, we thereby rebel against ourselves, against our humanity and spirituality, we lose our human appearance.

Each nation creates and reproduces its own culture, traditions, rituals and customs. But cultural scientists also distinguish a number of elements that are inherent in all cultures - cultural universals. These include, for example, language with its grammatical structure, rules for raising children. Cultural universals include the commandments of most world religions (“Thou shalt not kill,” “Thou shalt not steal,” “Thou shalt not bear false witness,” etc.).

Along with consideration of the concept of "culture" we must touch on another problem. And what is pseudo-culture, ersatz culture? With ersatz products that are widely sold in the country, as a rule, during a crisis, everything is clear. These are cheap substitutes for valuable natural products. Instead of tea - dried carrot peels, instead of bread - a mixture of bran with quinoa or bark. A modern ersatz product is, for example, vegetable-based margarine, which is carefully passed off as butter by advertisers. And what is an ersatz (fake) culture? This is an imaginary culture, imaginary spiritual values, which can sometimes look very attractive outwardly, but in fact distract a person from the true and high. We may be told: go into this comfortable world of pseudo-values, save yourself from the complexities of life in primitive counterfeit joys, pleasures; immerse yourself in the illusory world of "soap operas", numerous television sagas like "My Fair Nanny" or "Don't Be Born Beautiful", the world of animated comics like "The Adventures of Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles"; profess the cult of consumerism, limit your world to Snickers, Sprites, etc.; instead of communicating with genuine humor, a product of the human mind, intellect, style, be content with vulgar humorous TV shows - a vivid embodiment of anticulture. So: it is convenient only for those who want to live exclusively by simple instincts, desires, needs.

A number of scholars divide culture into material and spiritual. Under material culture refers to buildings, structures, household items, tools - what is created and used by a person in the process of life. And spiritual culture is the fruit of our thought and creativity. Strictly speaking, such a division is very arbitrary and not even entirely true. For example, speaking of a book, a fresco, a statue, we cannot clearly say what kind of culture this monument is - material or spiritual. Most likely, these two sides can be distinguished only in relation to the embodiment of culture and its purpose. The lathe, of course, is not a Rembrandt painting, but it is also a product of human creativity, the result of sleepless nights and vigils of its creator.

The relationship of economic, social, political and spiritual spheres of society

Social life includes all phenomena due to the interaction of society as a whole and individual people located in a certain limited area. Social scientists note the close interconnection and interdependence of all major social spheres, reflecting certain aspects human being and activities.

Economic sphere social life includes material production and relations that arise between people in the process of production of material goods, their exchange and distribution. It is difficult to overestimate the role played in our life by economic, commodity-money relations and professional activity. Today they have even come to the fore too actively, and material values ​​sometimes completely crowd out spiritual ones. Many now say that a person first needs to be fed, to provide him with material well-being, to maintain his physical strength, and only then - spiritual benefits and political freedoms. There is even a saying: "Better to be full than free." This, however, is debatable. For example, unfree person, spiritually undeveloped, will until the end of his days worry only about physical survival and satisfaction of his physiological needs.

Political sphere, also called political and legal, is associated primarily with the management of society, state structure, problems of power, laws and regulations.

AT political sphere one way or another, one encounters established rules of conduct. Today, some people become disillusioned with politics and politicians. This is because people do not see positive changes in their lives. Many young people are also not very interested in politics, preferring meetings in friendly companies and passion for music. However, it is impossible to completely isolate ourselves from this sphere of public life: if we do not want to participate in the life of the state, then we will have to obey someone else's will and someone else's decisions. One thinker said: "If you don't get into politics, then politics will get into you."

Social sphere includes relationships various groups people (classes, social strata, nations), considers the position of a person in society, the basic values ​​and ideals established in a particular group. A person cannot exist without other people, therefore it is the social sphere that is the part of life that accompanies him from the moment of birth until the last minutes.

spiritual realm covers various manifestations creativity person, his inner world, own ideas about beauty, experiences, moral attitudes, religious beliefs, the ability to realize oneself in various types art.

Which of the spheres of society's life seems to be more significant? And which one is less? There is no unequivocal answer to this question, since social phenomena are complex and in each of them it is possible to trace the interconnection and mutual influence of spheres.

For example, one can trace the close relationship between economics and politics. Reforms are being carried out in the country, taxes for entrepreneurs have been reduced. This political measure contributes to the growth of production, facilitating the activities of businessmen. And vice versa, if the government increases the tax burden on enterprises, it will not be profitable for them to develop, and many entrepreneurs will try to withdraw their capital from industry.

Equally important is the relationship between the social sphere and politics. The leading role in the social sphere of modern society is played by representatives of the so-called "middle strata" - qualified specialists, workers in the information sphere (programmers, engineers), representatives of small and medium-sized businesses. And these same people will form the leading political parties and movement, as well as their system of views on society.

The economy and the spiritual sphere are interconnected. So, for example, the economic possibilities of society, the level of mastery of a person natural resources allows the development of science, and vice versa, fundamental scientific discoveries contribute to the transformation of the productive forces of society. There are many examples of the relationship between all four public spheres. For example, in the course of the market reforms being carried out in the country, a variety of forms of ownership has been legalized. This contributes to the emergence of new social groups - the business class, small and medium-sized businesses, farming, and specialists in private practice. In the field of culture, the emergence of private funds mass media, film companies, Internet providers contributes to the development of pluralism in the spiritual sphere, the creation of spiritual products that are different in their essence, multidirectional information. Similar examples the interrelationships between the spheres can be given an infinite number.

Social institutions

One of the elements that make up society as a system are various social institutions.

The word "institution" here should not be taken as a specific institution. This is a broad concept that includes everything that is created by people to realize their needs, desires, aspirations. In order to better organize their lives and activities, society forms certain structures, norms that allow satisfying certain needs.

Social institutions - these are relatively stable types and forms social practice, through which social life is organized, the stability of ties and relations within society is ensured.

Scientists identify several groups of institutions in each society: 1) economic institutions that serve for the production and distribution of goods and services; 2) political institutions governing public life, related to the exercise of power and access to them; 3) stratification institutions, defining the distribution social positions and community resources; 4) kinship institutions that ensure reproduction and inheritance through marriage, family, upbringing; 5) cultural institutions developing the continuity of religious, scientific and artistic activity in society.

For example, the society's need for reproduction, development, preservation and multiplication is fulfilled by such institutions as the family and the school. The social institution that performs the functions of security and protection is the army.

The institutions of society are also morality, law, religion. The starting point for the formation of a social institution is society's awareness of its needs.

The emergence of a social institution is due to:

• the need of society;
• availability of means to meet this need;
• the availability of the necessary material, financial, labor, organizational resources;
• the possibility of its integration into the socio-economic, ideological, value structures of society, which makes it possible to legitimize the professional and legal basis of its activities.

The famous American scientist R. Merton defined the main functions of social institutions. Explicit functions are written down in charters, formally fixed, officially accepted by people. They are formalized and largely controlled by society. For example, we can ask government agencies: "Where do our taxes go?"

Hidden functions - those that are actually carried out and formally may not be fixed. If hidden and explicit functions diverge, a certain double standard when one thing is declared and another is done. In this case, scientists talk about the instability of the development of society.

The process of social development is accompanied institutionalization, i.e., the formation of new relationships and needs, leading to the creation of new institutions. The American sociologist of the 20th century, G. Lansky, identified a number of needs that lead to the formation of institutions. These are the needs:

• in communication (language, education, communication, transport);
• in the production of products and services;
• in the distribution of goods;
• in the safety of citizens, the protection of their lives and well-being;
• in maintaining the system of inequality (placement community groups by positions, statuses depending on various criteria);
• in social control over the behavior of members of society (religion, morality, law).

Modern society is characterized by the growth and complexity of the system of institutions. The same social need can give rise to the existence of several institutions, while certain institutions (for example, the family) can simultaneously realize several needs: in reproduction, in communication, in security, in the production of services, in socialization, etc.

Multivariance of social development. Typology of societies

The life of each individual and society as a whole is constantly changing. Not a single day and hour we live is like the previous ones. When do we say that there has been a change? Then, when it is clear to us that one state is not equal to another, and something new has appeared that was not there before. How are changes taking place and where are they directed?

At each individual moment of time, a person and his associations are influenced by many factors, sometimes mismatched and multidirectional. Therefore, it is difficult to speak of any clear, precise arrow-shaped line of development characteristic of society. The processes of change are complex, uneven, and sometimes it is difficult to grasp their logic. The paths of social change are varied and tortuous.

Often we come across such a concept as "social development". Let's think about how change will generally differ from development? Which of these concepts is broader, and which is more specific (it can be entered into another, considered as special case another)? Obviously, not all change is development. But only that which involves complication, improvement and is associated with the manifestation of social progress.

What drives the development of society? What can be hidden behind each new stage? We should look for answers to these questions, first of all, in the very system of complex social relations, in internal contradictions, conflicts of different interests.

Development impulses can come both from the society itself, its internal contradictions, as well as from outside.

External impulses can be generated, in particular, natural environment, space. For example, a serious problem for modern society has become climate change on our planet, the so-called " global warming". The answer to this "challenge" was the adoption by a number of countries of the world of the Kyoto Protocol, which prescribes to reduce emissions into the atmosphere harmful substances. In 2004, Russia also ratified this protocol, making commitments to protect the environment.

If changes in society occur gradually, then the new accumulates in the system quite slowly and sometimes imperceptibly to the observer. And the old, the previous, is the basis on which the new is grown, organically combining the traces of the previous one. We do not feel conflict and negation by the new of the old. And only after some time we exclaim with surprise: “How everything has changed around!”. Such gradual progressive changes we call evolution. evolutionary path development does not imply a sharp breakdown, destruction of previous social relations.

The external manifestation of evolution, the main way of its implementation is reform. Under reform we understand power action to change certain areas, aspects of public life in order to give society greater stability, stability.

The evolutionary path of development is not the only one. Not all societies could solve urgent problems through organic gradual transformations. In conditions of an acute crisis affecting all spheres of society, when the accumulated contradictions literally blow up the established order, revolution. Any revolution taking place in society presupposes a qualitative transformation public structures, demolition of the old order and rapid innovation. The revolution releases significant social energy, which is not always possible to control the forces that initiated the revolutionary change. The ideologists and practitioners of the revolution seem to be letting the "genie out of the bottle." Subsequently, they try to drive this "genie" back, but this, as a rule, does not work. The revolutionary element begins to develop according to its own laws, often baffling its creators.

That is why during social revolution often dominated by spontaneous, chaotic beginnings. Sometimes revolutions bury those people who stood at their origins. Or else the results and consequences of the revolutionary explosion are so fundamentally different from the original tasks that the creators of the revolution cannot but admit their defeat. Revolutions give rise to a new quality, and it is important to be able to transfer further development processes in an evolutionary direction in time. Russia experienced two revolutions in the 20th century. Especially heavy shocks fell to the lot of our country in 1917-1920.

As history shows, many revolutions were replaced by reaction, a rollback to the past. We can talk about different types of revolutions in the development of society: social, technical, scientific, cultural.

The significance of revolutions is assessed differently by thinkers. So, for example, the German philosopher K. Marx, the founder of scientific communism, considered revolutions to be "the locomotives of history." At the same time, many emphasized the destructive, destructive effect of revolutions on society. In particular, Russian philosopher N. A. Berdyaev (1874–1948) wrote the following about the revolution: “All revolutions ended in reactions. This is inevitable. This is the law. And the more violent and furious the revolutions were, the stronger were the reactions. There is a kind of magic circle in the alternation of revolutions and reactions.

Comparing the ways of transforming society, the well-known modern Russian historian P.V. Volobuev wrote: “ evolutionary form, firstly, made it possible to ensure the continuity community development and thereby preserve all the accumulated wealth. Secondly, evolution, contrary to our primitive ideas, was also accompanied by major qualitative changes in society, not only in productive forces and technology, but also in spiritual culture, in the way of life of people. Thirdly, in order to solve new problems arising in the course of evolution public tasks she adopted such a method of social transformation as reforms, which turned out to be simply incomparable in their "costs" with the gigantic price of many revolutions. Ultimately, as shown historical experience, evolution is able to provide and maintain social progress giving it a civilized form as well.

Typology of societies

Highlighting Various types societies, thinkers are based, on the one hand, on the chronological principle, noting the changes that occur over time in the organization of social life. On the other hand, certain signs of societies coexisting with each other at the same time are grouped. This allows you to create a kind of horizontal slice of civilizations. So, speaking of traditional society as the basis for the formation modern civilization, it is impossible not to note the preservation of many of its features and characteristics to this day.

most established in modern social science is an approach based on the selection three types of societies: traditional (pre-industrial), industrial, post-industrial (sometimes called technological or informational). At the core this approach lies to a greater extent a vertical, chronological cut, i.e., it is assumed that one society will be replaced by another in the course of historical development. With the theory of K. Marx, this approach has in common that it is based primarily on the distinction of technical and technological features.

What are character traits and signs of each of these societies? Let's go to the description traditional society- basics of formation modern world. First of all, ancient and medieval society is called traditional, although many of its features are preserved in more later times. For example, the countries of the East, Asia, Africa retain signs of traditional civilization today.

So, what are the main features and characteristics of a traditional type of society?

In the very understanding of traditional society, it is necessary to note the focus on reproducing in an unchanged form the ways of human activity, interactions, forms of communication, organization of life, and culture samples. That is, in this society diligently observed the relations that have developed between people, techniques labor activity, family values, way of life.

A person in a traditional society is bound by a complex system of dependence on the community, the state. His behavior is strictly regulated by the norms adopted in the family, estate, society as a whole.

traditional society distinguishes the predominance of agriculture in the structure of the economy, the majority of the population is employed in the agricultural sector, works on the land, lives by its fruits. Land is considered the main wealth, and the basis for the reproduction of society is what is produced on it. Mainly hand tools (plow, plow) are used, the renewal of equipment and production technology is rather slow.

The main element of the structure of traditional societies is the agricultural community: the collective that manages the land. The personality in such a team is weakly singled out, its interests are not clearly identified. The community, on the one hand, will limit a person, on the other hand, provide him with protection and stability. The most severe punishment in such a society was often considered expulsion from the community, "deprivation of shelter and water." Society has a hierarchical structure, more often divided into estates according to the political and legal principle.

A feature of a traditional society is its closeness to innovation, the extremely slow nature of change. And these changes themselves are not considered as a value. More important - stability, stability, following the commandments of the ancestors. Any innovation is seen as a threat to the existing world order, and the attitude towards it is extremely wary. "The traditions of all the dead generations weigh like a nightmare over the minds of the living."

The Czech educator J. Korchak noted the dogmatic way of life inherent in traditional society: “Prudence up to complete passivity, to the point of ignoring all rights and rules that have not become traditional, not consecrated by authorities, not rooted in repetition day after day ... Everything can become dogma - and the earth , and the church, and the fatherland, and virtue, and sin; can become science, social and political activity, wealth, any opposition ... "

A traditional society will diligently protect its behavioral norms, the standards of its culture from outside influences from other societies and cultures. An example of such "closedness" is the centuries-old development of China and Japan, which were characterized by a closed, self-sufficient existence and any contacts with strangers were practically excluded by the authorities. A significant role in the history of traditional societies is played by the state and religion.

Of course, as trade, economic, military, political, cultural and other contacts develop between various countries and the peoples will violate such “closeness”, often in a very painful way for these countries. Traditional societies under the influence of the development of technology, technology, means of communication will enter a period of modernization.

Of course, this is a generalized picture of a traditional society. More precisely, one can speak of a traditional society as a kind of cumulative phenomenon that includes features of development different peoples at a certain stage. There are many different traditional societies (Chinese, Japanese, Indian, Western European, Russian, etc.) that bear the imprint of their culture.

We are well aware that society ancient Greece and the Old Babylonian kingdom differ significantly in the dominant forms of ownership, the degree of influence of communal structures and the state. If in Greece and Rome private property develops and civil rights and freedoms, then in societies oriental type strong traditions of despotic rule, the suppression of man by the agricultural community, collective character labor. However, both of these various options traditional society.

Long-term preservation of the agricultural community, the predominance of agriculture in the structure of the economy, the peasantry in the composition of the population, joint labor and collective land use of communal peasants, autocratic power allow us to characterize Russian society over many centuries of its development as traditional. Transition to a new type of society - industrial- will be carried out quite late - only in the second half of the XIX century.

It cannot be said that traditional society is a past stage, that everything connected with traditional structures, norms, and consciousness has remained in the distant past. Moreover, considering this, we make it difficult for ourselves to understand many problems and phenomena of the modern world. And today a number of societies retain the features of traditionalism, primarily in culture, public consciousness, political system, life.

The transition from a traditional society, devoid of dynamism, to an industrial type society reflects such a concept as modernization.

industrial society is born as a result of the industrial revolution, leading to the development of large-scale industry, new modes of transport and communications, a decrease in the role of agriculture in the structure of the economy and the resettlement of people in cities.

In "Modern philosophical dictionary”, published in 1998 in London, contains the following definition of an industrial society:

An industrial society is characterized by the orientation of people towards ever-increasing volumes of production, consumption, knowledge, etc. The ideas of growth and progress are the "core" of the industrial myth, or ideology. essential role in social organization industrial society is played by the concept of the machine. The consequence of the implementation of ideas about the machine is the extensive development of production, as well as the "mechanization" of social relations, the relationship of man with nature ... The boundaries of the development of an industrial society are revealed as the limits of extensively oriented production are discovered.

Earlier than others, the industrial revolution swept the countries Western Europe. The UK was the first country to implement it. Already to mid-nineteenth century, the vast majority of its population was employed in industry. Industrial society is characterized by rapid dynamic change, growth social mobility, urbanization - the process of growth and development of cities. Contacts and ties between countries and peoples are expanding. These communications are carried out by telegraph and telephone. The structure of society is also changing: it is based not on estates, but on social groups that differ in their place in the economic system - classes. Along with changes in the economy and the social sphere, the political system industrial society - developing parliamentarism, multi-party system, expanding the rights and freedoms of citizens. Many researchers believe that the formation of a civil society that is aware of its interests and acts as a full partner of the state is also associated with the formation of an industrial society. To a certain extent, it is precisely such a society that has received the name capitalist. The early stages of its development were analyzed in the 19th century by the English scientists J. Mill, A. Smith, German philosopher K. Marx.

At the same time, in the era of the industrial revolution, there is an increase in unevenness in the development of various regions of the world, which leads to colonial wars, captures, enslavement of weak countries by strong ones.

Russian society is quite late, only by the 40s of the 19th century, it enters the period of the industrial revolution, and the formation of the foundations of an industrial society in Russia is noted only by the beginning of the 20th century. Many historians believe that at the beginning of the 20th century our country was agrarian-industrial. Complete industrialization in pre-revolutionary period Russia failed. Although the reforms carried out on the initiative of S. Yu. Witte and P. A. Stolypin were aimed precisely at this.

By the end of industrialization, that is, the creation of a powerful industry that would make the main contribution to the national wealth of the country, the authorities returned already in Soviet period stories.

We know the concept Stalinist industrialization", which fell on the 1930s - 1940s. AT as soon as possible, at an accelerated pace, using primarily the funds received from the robbery of the countryside, the mass collectivization of peasant farms, by the end of the 1930s, our country created the foundations of a heavy and military industry, mechanical engineering and ceased to depend on the supply of equipment from abroad. But did this mean the end of the process of industrialization? Historians argue. Some researchers believe that even in the late 1930s, the main share of national wealth was still formed in the agricultural sector, i.e. Agriculture produced more product than industry.

Therefore, experts believe that industrialization in the Soviet Union was completed only after the Great Patriotic War, by the middle - second half of the 1950s. By this time, industry had taken a leading position in the production of gross domestic product. Also most of population of the country was employed in the industrial sector.

The second half of the 20th century was marked by rapid development fundamental science, engineering and technology. Science is turning into a direct powerful economic force.

The rapid changes that have engulfed a number of spheres of the life of modern society have made it possible to talk about the entry of the world into post-industrial era. In the 1960s, this term was first proposed by the American sociologist D. Bell. He also formulated the main features of a post-industrial society: creating a vast service economy, increasing the layer of qualified scientific and technical specialists, the central role of scientific knowledge as a source of innovation, ensuring technological growth, creating a new generation of intelligent technology. Following Bell, the theory of post-industrial society was developed by American scientists J. Galbright and O. Toffler.

basis post-industrial society was the restructuring of the economy, carried out in Western countries at the turn of the 1960s - 1970s. Instead of heavy industry, the leading positions in the economy were taken by science-intensive industries, the “knowledge industry”. The symbol of this era, its basis is the microprocessor revolution, mass distribution personal computers, information technologies, electronic means of communication. The pace increases exponentially economic development, the speed of transmission over a distance of information and financial flows. With the entry of the world into the post-industrial, information age, there is a decrease in the employment of people in industry, transport, industrial sectors, and vice versa, the number of people employed in the service sector, in the information sector is increasing. It is no coincidence that a number of scientists call the post-industrial society informational or technological.

Describing modern society American explorer P. Drucker notes: “Today knowledge is already applied to the sphere of knowledge itself, and this can be called a revolution in the field of management. Knowledge is rapidly becoming the determining factor of production, relegating both capital and labor to the background.”

Scientists who study the development of culture, spiritual life, in relation to the post-industrial world, introduce another name - postmodern era. (Scientists understand the era of modernism as an industrial society. - Note by the author.) If the concept of post-industrialism mainly emphasizes differences in the sphere of economy, production, methods of communication, then postmodernism primarily covers the sphere of consciousness, culture, patterns of behavior.

The new perception of the world, according to scientists, is based on three main features.

First, at the end of the belief in the possibility human mind, a skeptical questioning of everything that European culture traditionally considered rational. Secondly, on the collapse of the idea of ​​unity and universality of the world. The postmodern understanding of the world is based on multiplicity, pluralism, the absence of common models and canons of development different cultures. Thirdly: the era of postmodernism sees the individual differently, "the individual as responsible for shaping the world retires, he is outdated, he is recognized as connected with the prejudices of rationalism and is discarded." The sphere of communication between people, communications, collective agreements comes to the fore.

As the main features of a postmodern society, scientists call increasing pluralism, multivariance and diversity of forms of social development, changes in the system of values, motives and incentives of people.

The approach we have chosen in a generalized form represents the main milestones in the development of mankind, focusing primarily on the history of the countries of Western Europe. Thus, it significantly narrows the possibility of studying specific traits, development features individual countries. He draws attention primarily to universal processes, and much remains outside the field of view of scientists. In addition, willy-nilly, we take for granted the point of view that there are countries that have pulled ahead, there are those that are successfully catching up with them, and those that are hopelessly behind, not having time to jump into the last carriage of the modernization machine rushing forward. The ideologists of the theory of modernization are convinced that it is the values ​​and models of development of Western society that are universal and are a guideline for development and a model for everyone to follow.

Society is a system, as it consists of interconnected and interacting with each other parts or elements of different orders.

Society structure

economic	political
production, distribution, exchange, consumption of material goods, business, markets, banks, firms, factories.	relationship with the implementation state power and management, the state, political parties, citizens.
SPHERES (SUBSYSTEMS OF SOCIETY)
social	spiritual
interaction different layers population, activities to ensure social guarantees, education, healthcare, pension funds.	creation, consumption, preservation and dissemination of spiritual values, educational institutions, sciences, arts, museums, theaters, churches.
Elements of society
Communities - large groups people educated on a socially significant basis, arising naturally: - classes; - ethnic groups; - demographic communities (by sex, age); - territorial communities; - confessional communities.	Social institutions are historically established, stable forms of organization of joint activities of people implementing certain functions in society, the main of which is satisfaction social needs. - family; - state; - church; - education; - business.

Social institutions:

• organize human activity into a certain system of roles and statuses, setting patterns of people's behavior in various fields public life.
• include a system of sanctions - from legal to moral and ethical;
• streamline, coordinate many individual actions of people, give them an organized and predictable character;
• provide standard behavior of people in socially typical situations.

Society is a complex, self-developing system characterized by the following specific features:

1. It has a wide variety of social structures and subsystems.
2. Society is not only people, but also social relations that arise between them, between spheres (subsystems) and their institutions.
3. Society is capable of creating and reproducing the necessary conditions for its own existence.
4. Society is dynamic system, it is characterized by the emergence and development of new phenomena, the obsolescence and death of old elements, as well as the incompleteness and alternative development. The choice of development options is carried out by a person.
5. Society is characterized by unpredictability, non-linearity of development.

Public relations are the diverse forms of interaction between people, as well as the connections that arise between different social groups (or within them).

Society functions:

Human reproduction and socialization;
- production of material goods and services;
- distribution of products of labor (activity);
- regulation and management of activities and behavior;
- spiritual production.

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The systemic structure of society: elements and subsystems
Society is a part of the material world separated from nature, but closely connected with it, which includes all forms of human interaction determined by their joint activities.

1. The concept of society. Society is a complex and ambiguous concept

A. In the broadest sense of the word

• 
  This is a part of the material world, isolated from nature, but closely connected with it, which includes: ways, interactions of people; forms of association of people

B. In the narrow sense of the word

• 
  A circle of people united by a common goal, interests, origin (for example, a numismatist society, a noble assembly)
• 
  A separate specific society, country, state, region (for example, modern Russian society, French society)
• 
  Historical stage in the development of mankind (for example, feudal society, capitalist society)
• 
  humanity as a whole

2. Functions of society

• 
  Production of material goods and services
• 
  Distribution of products of labor (activities)
• 
  Regulation and management of activities and behavior
• 
  Human reproduction and socialization
• 
  Spiritual production and regulation of people's activity

3. Public relations - diverse forms of interaction between people, as well as connections that arise between different social groups (or within them)

Society is a set of social relations. The essence of society is in the relationships between people.

Material relations - arise and develop directly in the course of practical activities person outside his consciousness and independently of him. This is:

Relations of production

Environmental relations

Relationships for childbearing

Spiritual (ideal) relationships - are formed, previously "passing through the consciousness" of people, are determined by their spiritual values. This is:

• 
  Moral Relations
• 
  Political relations
• 
  Legal relations
• 
  Artistic Relations
• 
  Philosophical attitudes
• 
  Religious relations

4. Society as a dynamic self-developing system.

A system is a complex of elements and links between them.

In social science, society is considered as a complex self-organized and self-developing system, i.e. such a system that is capable of seriously changing at the same time retaining its specificity and qualitative certainty.

For the analysis of self-organized systems, such as society, the concepts of a subsystem are used.

The division of society into spheres is conditional, because All subsystems are not only interconnected, but also mutually condition each other.

Features of society as a system:

- distinguishes him a large number of structures, systems and subsystems that are interdependent

Society is self-sufficient, i.e. does not require external factors for its development

The development of society is characterized by acute competitive fight caused by the contradictory interests of its constituent elements

The immutability of the event and the possibility of realizing the most different models future

Society is a system of supra-individual relations, it is not reducible to people in terms of its components.

Any intervention in social process all possible consequences must be considered.

Dynamism, incompleteness of development

Society as a complex, self-developing system is characterized by the following specific features:

1. It is distinguished by a wide variety of different social structures and subsystems.

2. Society is not reducible to the people who make it up, it is a system of extra- and supra-individual forms, connections and relationships that a person creates with his own vigorous activity along with other people.

3. Society is inherent in self-sufficiency, i.e. the ability to create and reproduce the necessary conditions for its own existence through its active joint activity.

4. Society is distinguished by exceptional dynamism, incompleteness and alternative development. chief actor in the choice of development options is a person.

5. Society highlights the special status of the subjects that determine its development.

6. Society is characterized by unpredictability, non-linearity of development.
Ways of development of society

It is customary to distinguish between a gradual change in social life, which is called evolutionary, and an abrupt change, which is called revolutionary.

The essence of society lies not in the people themselves, but in the social relations they enter into. Under public relations understand any relationship between social groups and within them.