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Section 7XVIII in. European and North American history. Problems of transition to the "realm of the mind". Peculiarities Russian modernization. Spiritual world man on the doorstep industrial society.7.1. What is the place XVIII in. in history Western Europe and North America?
Despite the periodization controversy world history and different assessments of individual historical eras, most scientists still agree that the XVIII century. ranked in history Western civilization special place. This is due to the fact that the XVIII century. closes a kind of transitional period, stretching for three centuries, within which a change was carried out social order and political structures. It accounted for the general economic upsurge in Europe, associated with rapid development market, capitalist elements in the economy, which crowded out the old feudal relations and created the preconditions for industrial revolution, which led in the second half of the XIX century. to the formation of an industrial society of the modern type.
In the XVIII century. manufacturing production reached the pinnacle of its development. With the preservation and further spread of scattered manufactories in Europe, the specific weight of centralized manufactories sharply increases. Large-scale production begins to prevail over the medieval craft, promotes the division of labor and its specialization. A multitude of new narrow specialties, which did not exist before, finally made it possible to replace a living person by a machine in many operations. Manufactories led to the rapid economic growth of England, Holland, France, and some areas West Germany, Northern Italy, Southern Netherlands, Sweden, Czech Republic, Catalonia.
The eighteenth century was the century of commerce, as its development overtook even the development of manufactories. In a relatively short period of time, the number of local and regional markets, which turned out to be firmly interconnected, increased significantly. The concentration of capital in trade, as a rule, overtook its concentration in industry. An international market was formed, which was increasingly influenced by manufacturing.
The birth and formation of Western industrial society turned out to be inseparable from the birth and formation of colonial system. If a Ancient Rome indirectly influenced the position of a huge number of surrounding tribes and peoples, then new Europe many times surpassed it in its impact on the destinies of the peoples of the world. To late XVII 1st century significant portion the globe was somehow enslaved. This was not always expressed in the direct seizure of other countries; a significant effect was provided by trading posts, unequal contracts. high rates The growth of foreign trade was largely made possible by the import of colonial products to the metropolitan countries and their subsequent re-export to other states.
Sometimes the occupied lands became, as happened in North American colonies England, the area of resettlement there by a significant number of Europeans, who seized lands, subsoil and other natural resources. We can say that by the beginning of the eighteenth century there was a center of European civilization. Subsequently, the British succeeded in turning possessions in America into a vast, rapidly expanding market for manufactured goods. However, for the second half of the 18th century local entrepreneurs and merchants have their own interests. The growth of the economic independence of the colonies, the establishment of internal relations, the creation of a national market, language and cultural characteristics related to interactions in North America different peoples, brought to life the processes of formation of the North American nation. These factors, after the proclamation of the United States in 1776, determined the development of the North American branch of Western civilization.
AT political sphere European society in the 18th century. absolutism continued to dominate, which is explained by the possibility of coexistence of old and new economic relations. The reorganization of the administration of European monarchies, which met the interests of the feudal nobility, at the same time made it possible to satisfy the wishes of the top of the unprivileged classes. In turn, absolutism could fulfill its tasks only by relying on the material resources of the capitalist sector of the economy. At the same time, absolutism had an alternative in the form of the English constitutional monarchy and republican form boards like Holland or the USA. The development of manufactories has led to significant changes in social structure European and North American society. Next to the financiers and merchants representing new social forces, a rather numerous class of manufacturers firmly established itself. The ranks of the manufacturing proletariat also multiplied. New industrial centers were areas of concentration of a large mass of manufacturing workers.
The ideological expression of the interests of the new classes, coinciding with the direction social progress in general, became the Enlightenment. Ideological foundations feudal system were undermined, which had a corresponding impact on shifts in the field of social psychology.
Thus the eighteenth century was one of turning points Western history when its course made a sharp turn from the obsolete feudal orders of the old regime to a new social system.
7.2. Why XVIII in. called the Age of Enlightenment?
A powerful and influential intellectual movement known as the Enlightenment has swept most European countries and still excites the minds and causes ambiguous assessments. Some admire the depth and power of the impact of the ideas of the Enlightenment, while others prefer to emphasize the "limitations of the Enlightenment", referring to its notorious "rationalism", which held back creative impulses and had a negative impact on art. The third cannot forgive the Enlightenment-related illusions linear scheme historical progress, naivety towards European autocrats who decided to act under the banner of "enlightened absolutism". It would not be an exaggeration to say that the question of Enlightenment and Enlightenment remains a touchstone for any direction public thought, for any cultural and historical movement, artistic movement.
The Age of Enlightenment is commonly understood as a period in the history of Europe, chronologically concluded between the bourgeois revolutions in England (mid-17th century) and France (end of the 18th century), characterized by the formation, flourishing and crisis of a whole complex of ideas, public mood, forms of historical behavior and aesthetic addictions. This complex phenomenon was anti-feudal social orientation and anti-absolutist in terms of the political program, reflecting the more or less conscious ideals of the entire third estate (the latter included financiers, merchants, entrepreneurs, artisans, peasants, freelancers). With all the differences between them, enlighteners proceed from the fact that all misfortunes and injustices come from ignorance, and only the enlightenment of the people and its rulers can lead to the creation of a just society. That is why knowledge and intelligence were so valued. That's why Special attention devoted to issues of pedagogy and the fight against obscurantism, superstition and the dictates of the church. The noted features ultimately determined the very name of the era.
The ideas of the Enlightenment were most developed in France in the 20-80s. 18th century Outstanding philosophers, writers, publicists, scientists formed here a brilliant galaxy of enlighteners, who knew no equal in Europe. Their ideas were popularized by numerous authors of the “second plan”, thanks to which the new value system became widespread. This was facilitated by the fact that the enlightenment movement in France developed in the conditions of the growing crisis of the "old order", caused radical changes in mentality, spiritually prepared great revolution end of the century. It was in the XVIII century. most clearly manifested the consciousness of the need for social and political transformation, the idea that nature and society should be based on natural laws sounded, specific political requirements were formulated.
Thinkers, scientists of the XVIII century. distinguished by the desire to systematize and deepen knowledge about nature, to move from ascertaining the relationship between natural phenomena to establishing quantitative relationships between them. Experimental research has become increasingly important, aided by technical and technological advances. In the XVIII century. leading European countries already had academies of sciences, special scientific publications organized scientific expeditions. In 1751, the famous "Encyclopedia of Sciences, Arts and Crafts" by Diderot and D "Alembert began to appear, clearly expressing the tendency to sum up general results in the field of science and technology, the desire to create a strict, complete picture of the world.
Discoveries in the field of astronomy, mechanics, physics, chemistry, geology, biology made it possible to replace technological ideas about the world with scientific ones, although not beyond the limits of metaphysical materialism. New ideas have inevitably affected society in its past and present.
Voltaire, Montesquieu, Diderot, Holbach, Helvetius and others made an attempt to understand the origin and nature of the state, to find the secret happy life of people. Their formula "freedom, civil equality, property" still has not lost its relevance, just like the idea of popular sovereignty, popular representation and direct people's rule. The concept of historical regularity, capital, productive and unproductive labor, objective economic laws appeared.
In the second half of the XVIII century. There have been major shifts in public attitudes towards religion. Deism spread. Many educators exposed the absurdities and contradictions of the Bible, swindle and "miracles", acquisitiveness and cruelty of the clergy, criticized the papacy, the Jesuits and catholic church in general, called for religious tolerance.
The result of the development of natural and humanities, critical writings of the enlighteners was the growth of anti-clerical sentiments and religious free-thinking, accompanied by the secularization of the socio-political and cultural life in advanced countries Europe A new understanding of morality begins to take shape, according to which virtue was not reduced to the use of church prescriptions for the sake of "saving the soul", but consisted in striving for the "common good" and the progress of mankind, increasingly understood as the "kingdom of reason". In a number of countries, the activities of church courts and the Inquisition were limited, the church structure was replaced by a state structure, the number of monasteries was reduced, and they began to regulate the activities of the church with the help of laws. Secular schools spread, in which the church no longer dominated, and the content of education was determined by the state of science. After them, secular universities appeared.
The noted features led to the fact that the 18th century went down in history as the Age of Enlightenment.
7.3. Is it possible to reform Peter I consider the modernization of Russia?
AT historical literature There are conflicting assessments of the activities of Peter I. However, most researchers believe that his reforms were of outstanding importance in the history of Russia. The debate is about whether the modernization of Russia was a forced westernization of the country or was prepared by the entire course of the previous development of Russia. Different opinions are expressed about whether Peter's activity was purposeful or was an impulsive reaction to an external challenge from the advanced European states. Since the time of Klyuchevsky, the opinion has been established that all the transformations of Russia in the era of Peter the Great were caused by the Northern War.
The transformations of Peter I were a prime example radical reforms carried out by the state without the support and even with the resistance of broad sections of society. They were largely prepared by his predecessors. Age-old traditions and long stay in a state of war formed the main method of their conduct - despotic violence. Personal acquaintance with Europe during the stay of Peter as part of the Great Embassy in late XVI 1st century determined the purpose and direction of the transformations
The ideal state structure for Peter I was " regular state”, a model similar to a ship, where the captain is the king, his subjects are officers and sailors acting on maritime charter. Only such a state, according to Peter, could become an instrument of decisive transformation, the purpose of which is to turn Russia into a great European power. Peter achieved this goal and therefore went down in history as great reformer. But at what cost were these results achieved? The repeated increase in taxes led to the impoverishment and enslavement of the bulk of the population. The attachment of every Russian to a place of residence and place of service reduced the space of freedom that expanded at that time in Europe. Everyone was built into the system, like cogs in a clockwork. Carrying out the reform government controlled,
Peter was guided by the principles of cameranism i.e. introduction of bureaucracy. at Russia developed a cult of institutions, and the pursuit of ranks and positions became a national disaster. A feature of the administrative reform was the creation of a system state control over the activities of the administration. This led to a kind of "bureaucratic revolution", the consequence of which was the dependence of everyone on the state apparatus. So the European idea of rationalization, "superimposed" on the Russian despotic tradition, blocked the way for the transformation of the sovereign's subjects into citizens of the Fatherland.
The absorption of the individual by the feudal state was facilitated by church reform which turned the church into a part state apparatus. This meant for the Russians the loss of a spiritual alternative to the state ideology. While in Europe the church, separating from the state, drew closer to the believers, in Russia it moved away from them, ceased to be a defender of the “humiliated and offended”, became an obedient instrument of power, which was contrary to Russian traditions, spiritual values, and the whole age-old way of life. that many of his contemporaries called Peter I the Antichrist Tsar.
Peculiar results were given by the desire of Peter I to catch up with Europe in economic development. He tried to realize this goal with the help of accelerated “manufactory industrialization, i.e., the creation of state and private manufactories by mobilizing state funds and using the labor of serfs. The main feature of the development of manufactories was the fulfillment of state, primarily military, orders, which freed them from competition, but also deprived them of free economic initiative.
Since the potential of the feudal system had not been exhausted by this time, these measures allowed Russia to make a breakthrough in the development of industry and trade. However, such economic policy expanded and conserved feudal-serf relations. Taking England and Holland as an example of development, Peter did not understand that their power was determined not so much by the number of manufactories as by the presence of conditions for free choice way of life and activities of their citizens. The modernization of traditional society, which took place at that time in Europe, manifested itself in a high social mobility population, the emergence of new social groups- Hired workers and manufacturers. The main feature of production was its high rationality, which subordinated economic life to the requirements of efficiency and profitability. In spiritual life, the economic ethics of Protestantism won, claiming that wealth is not a sin, but a sign of being chosen by God, provided that wealth is not used for luxury, but for further success in the development of production. center of new public relations, emerging in Europe, became free man the result of the Petrine reforms was the creation in Russia of the foundations of a state-monopoly industry, feudal and militarized. Instead of a civil society with a market economy emerging in Europe, Russia by the end of Peter's reign represented a military-police state with a state-owned monopolized feudal economy. There was a slowdown in the development of free enterprise. The space of freedom has narrowed, since each person was limited in his activities by the framework of state interests, which extended to all spheres of Russian life.
Thus, Peter's reforms, aimed at the Europeanization of Russia, did not achieve their goal. The revolutionary nature of Peter turned out to be false. carried out while maintaining the basic principles of a despotic regime, universal enslavement. sole initiator
The movement in the created system was the state, from the head of which the pace, direction, and methods of development depended.
7.4. What is the essence and what is the role of enlightened absolutism in Russia?
AT historical science firmly established the concept of enlightened absolutism. Some historians believe that enlightened absolutism is a certain stage in the development absolute monarchy, who realized her duty to society and carried out modernization in her states, based on the ideas of enlightenment philosophers. Other researchers see attempts to implement "lessons to kings" only as a way to change outer mold public life while maintaining the basic foundations of feudalism. Such an assessment for a long time was dominant over Russian sovereigns who tried to reform Russia.
The activities carried out by the reformers on the throne, as a rule, included: the patronage of the national industry, the creation favorable conditions for the development of agriculture and the growth of domestic and foreign trade, the improvement of the tax system, the administrative-territorial structure, the weakening of the power of landowners-feudal lords over the peasants, the codification of laws and the creation legal system, promotion of sciences and education, limiting the influence of the church. Where the authorities were able to implement theoretical concepts Enlightenment, the country embarked on the path of progress, avoiding revolutionary upheavals.
reality Russian life 18th century were such that, on the one hand, they demanded reforms, and at the same time excluded their successful implementation. Any attempt to deprive the nobility of part of their privileges met with powerful resistance. The absence in Russia of the "third estate", on which absolutism could rely as a social basis for transformation, made these attempts hopeless. Therefore, each new reign in Russia in the second half of the XVIII - early XIX centuries began with the persecution of the regime, attempts to transform society, and ended with the persecution of liberalism and the tightening of the political regime.
First Russian monarch, who made an attempt to use the ideas of the Enlightenment to transform the country was Catherine P. The time of her reign was a period of decisive innovations and brilliant military victories that secured the title of a great European power for Russia. In the first years of her reign, Catherine tried to follow the ideals brought up in her by the books of Voltaire, Diderot , other European philosophers. So did her "colleagues": Charles III in Spain, Gustav III in Sweden, Joseph II in Austria, Frederick II in Prussia. Since these monarchs had laws as the main instrument for transforming society, Catherine also decided to streamline Russian legislation by codifying it.
To draw up a new set of laws - the Code - elections were held for deputies to a special Legislative Commission. The queen wanted to create a class-representative body, relying on which it would be possible to pursue a policy of enlightened absolutism. Elections to the commission were class-based. All groups of the population were represented in it, except for the landlord peasants. Such an action was reminiscent of the Zemsky Sobors, traditional for Russia, gathered during a period of cardinal transformations. At the request of the Empress, set out in a special Order, the deputies of the Legislative Commission were to set an example of independence, inner freedom other citizens of Russia. The order - a program of action, consisting of the most progressive ideas of the century - recognized the right of people to be free, the submission of all to the law. Catherine sincerely wished to move the country along the path of progress, to rid it of the most barbaric rules and habits.
But the work of the commission, which began in 1767, showed the utopianism of the idea of transforming the country on the basis of a social contract and natural law man to freedom. Public consciousness in Russia was not ready for a new system of social relations. The behavior of deputies of all classes was aimed at satisfying their corporate interests, including the general desire to have serfs.
It is known that the policy of enlightened absolutism can be successful only if society readily accepts commands coming from above. This is all the more true for Catherine II: in the eyes of many, she was an illegal queen who killed her husband and removed from power the legitimate heir to the throne, her son Paul.) the Russian tsarina could. Catherine retreat-
La, but did not immediately abandon her youthful ideals.
Strengthening your position and state power with the help of the nobles, pursuing a policy of enslaving the peasants, she at the same time encouraged entrepreneurship and trade, promoted through a free economic society scientific knowledge in the field of agricultural technology, secularized the monastic lands, transferring the monastic peasants to the category of economic, that is, to one of the varieties of state-owned, refusing to redistribute them among the landowners. She carried out administrative reforms - provincial and city. Catherine did a lot for the growth of education in the country and the introduction of freedom-loving ideas and European culture. Under her rule, the first "unwhipped generation" of nobles grew up, possessing a sense of personal dignity, the concept of honor and duty to the people. She even prepared a successor to her policy, in the most suitable conditions for this, as she considered it - the grandson of Alexander.
The curtailment of the policy of enlightened absolutism was undoubtedly influenced by two events XVIII century: the peasant war under the leadership of E. Pugachev in Russia and the Great French revolution. The latter was also the end of enlightened absolutism in Europe. In Russia, the last attempt to implement the ideas of the European Enlightenment was the activity of Alexander I. But practical results his activities were small. The weakness of the soil sources of liberalism, the resistance of the landlords, and the lack of support from the broad strata of the population doomed these attempts to failure. Russia was too large stock the inertia of the traditional society in order to move along the path of modernization without breaking and upheavals.
7.5. When did capitalist relations begin in Russia?
In historical science there is no single point of view on the problem of the genesis of capitalism in Russia. Supporters of the concept of linear progressivism, i.e., a consistent change of formations, having common methodology, differ in their views on the time of its origin in Russia. They are divided into supporters of "early" (17th century) and "late" (end of the 18th century) capitalism. Recent times the opinion that in Russia for a long time not only existed in parallel, but also developed simultaneously feudal-serfdom and bourgeois relations, is becoming increasingly popular, and this is one of typological features Russian capitalism. A group of researchers denies the capitalist nature of the country's development even in late XVIII in. They believe that Russian village at that time it was not subject to capitalist stratification, therefore the commodity market was not formed on a capitalist basis, which means that there is no reason to talk about the crisis of feudalism and the development of the capitalist way of life.
The word "capital" appeared in Europe in the XII-XIII centuries. However, the concept of "capitalism" was included in scientific circulation only in the second half of the nineteenth century. Some scholars consider the defining feature of capitalism a high degree rationality, manifested in the organization of production, attitude to work, subordination economic life efficiency and profitability requirements. Other main properties of capitalism are seen in the emergence of a free market for goods, labor and capital. In Marxist historiography, capitalism is defined as a formation based on the private ownership of the bourgeois class on the means of production, the exploitation of wage workers deprived of the means of production and forced to sell their labor power. The capitalist mode of production must be preceded by a period of primitive accumulation of capital: concentration material resources on one pole and free laborers, that is, people deprived of property, on the other. In the course of this process, non-economic exploitation is replaced by economic exploitation. Is there any reason to talk about the "early" emergence of capitalism in Russia? in Russia at the end of the 17th century. there were the first manufactories, but their number did not reach three dozen. The decisive role in the economy was played not by them, but by peasant household crafts, urban artisans, i.e., small-scale production in the city and countryside. Concerning industrial relations, then we will not find anything resembling the formation of a class of the bourgeoisie and pre-proletariat at that time in Russia.
Reforms of Peter I in the first quarter XVIII in. in industry led to the creation of a powerful economy based on new European technologies. This created certain opportunities for the capitalization of the country, if its basis is considered the technical production base. However, in the system of feudal social relations, which intensified during the Petrine reforms, there were no conditions for the formation of classes in bourgeois society. As for agriculture, it was not even supposed to create new productive forces, and, moreover, the production relations corresponding to them.
In the first 20 years after the death of Peter I, there were no noticeable changes in the economy and social structure of Russia. Only in the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna (1741-1761) did some changes appear: capitalist industry began to take shape among the merchants, state peasants and the quitrent part of the landlord peasantry. The processes of capitalization of the country became most noticeable in the second half of the 18th century, during the reign of Catherine II (1762 - 1796). The policy pursued by her largely contributed to the formation of a new way of life. Catherine II abolished industrial monopolies and proclaimed freedom of enterprise and trade. The peasants were given the opportunity to freely engage in "needlework" and the sale of industrial products, which contributed to the development of small-scale commodity production into capitalist manufactory. Established under Catherine Commercial Bank to provide loans to merchants. Foreign trade policy protected the interests of domestic production: the import of goods that were "abundant in their own state" was prohibited, and goods that were not produced in Russia were exempted from duties.
Catherine's century can be considered the period when classes began to form capitalist society the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. However, faster and deeper development Russian entrepreneurship hindered by the dominance of serfdom in the countryside and communal traditions, which prevented the stratification of the peasantry and its proletarianization. At this time, the quitrent system of exploitation is spreading. Peasants leaving to work received passports from the landowner that allowed them to be absent from 6 months to 3 years, and tickets valid for 3 months. The landowner could at any moment return the peasant from the dues and deprive the industry of the worker. The wages of such a worker included an ever-increasing quitrent payment to the landowner. Thus, the landlords forced to work for themselves not only the peasant who was personally dependent on him, but also the young Russian industry.
Nevertheless, the quitrent provided the peasants with a wider scope of activity and encouraged their entrepreneurial spirit. No wonder the most famous manufacturers and wealthy merchants - the founders of the mighty family dynasties of the Russian bourgeoisie - came from the Non-Black Earth region, where in most quitrent form of rent was widespread.
The spread of trade and money relations led to the separation of the commercial and entrepreneurial peasant elite. There are "capitalist peasants" - the organizers of production. While the development of the economy was carried out by the noble state and the landlords, it was difficult to find evidence of the capitalist development of the country, except for indicators of the growth of industrial production, including the state. But when the peasant community began to change, its pre-capitalist stratification appeared, the patriarchal way of life began to crack and the psychological makeup began to change. mass man- the process has become irreversible.
At the same time, it should be emphasized that this development had specific features that predetermined the characteristics of Russian capitalism in the subsequent period. The Russian version of capitalism initially differed from the European one not so much in quantitative indicators of production as in the type of emerging capitalist structures.
7.6. Were there any peasant wars in Russia?
The concept of "peasant war" was introduced by F. Engels in 1850 in the work "Peasant War in Germany". It referred to the uprising in 1524-1525. headed by T. Münzer. Such a concept corresponded to the Marxist view of history, which was characterized by formational and class approaches to the study of the past. Such phenomena were considered as a form typical of feudalism. class struggle oppressed peasantry against feudal feudal lords.
Soviet historians began to widely use the concept of "peasant war" from the mid-1930s. The largest mass armed uprisings of the people of the period of feudalism were called peasant wars. They covered large area and involved in the movement not only serfs, but also the most diverse segments of the population: serfs, townspeople ( urban population), Cossacks, small local nobles, small service people, as well as non-Russian peoples. Peasant wars were recognized as a kind of civil wars. Therefore, the fact was emphasized that in the course of them there was a struggle for power in the state and that the rebels, for all the spontaneity and disorganization of their performance, had their own army, their own governing bodies, in a word, individual elements of organization.
What were the rebels against? Soviet historians did not give an unambiguous answer to this question. Some believed that the peasants and their allies in common struggle primarily opposed serfdom as the most difficult variant of the feudal system for the people, for the creation acceptable conditions within the framework of feudalism, others - that the people fought against the feudal system in general. In the writings of Soviet historians very clearly manifested " double standard» when evaluating the actions of the insurgents and their opponents. So, usually a lot and willingly was said about the "atrocities" of the "royal punishers" (which actually took place). At the same time, no less "atrocities" of the rebels, as it were, were not noticed or justified in every possible way.
Peasant wars were assessed by Soviet historians as an unconditionally progressive phenomenon in accordance with the Marxist position on the progressive nature of the class struggle in general. However, the question of what this progressiveness consisted of was not given an exhaustive answer. It was usually pointed out that the traditions of popular struggle were laid down, and the feudal lords, frightened by the scope of popular uprisings, were forced to somewhat limit the exploitation of serfs. A very controversial thesis was put forward that the peasant war of the beginning of the 17th century. delayed completion until 1649 legal registration serfdom in Russia. At the same time, the fact is ignored that it was precisely during the uprising of I. Bolotnikov, which was considered the highest rise of the peasant war, that the government of Tsar Vasily Shuisky did not weaken, but strengthened the serfdom regime, adopting a decree of March 9, 1607, in accordance with which the term for detecting fugitives increased from 5 to 15 years old. No other specific signs of the progressivity of the peasant wars Soviet historians did not single out.
Since the 80s Soviet historians began to gradually move away from the limitation of the purely class characteristics of the largest popular movements in Russia XVII-XVIII centuries. A view has spread of these movements as a concentrated expression of the crisis of the entire Russian society, and not only as the result of an exacerbation of class contradictions. In this regard, some researchers generally refused to consider the events that took place in Russia in early XVII century, as well as the Bulavin uprising by peasant wars. They did not see in these movements either any "anti-feudal program" or the expression of specific peasant aspirations. Currently, most historians recognize only the Razin uprising as peasant wars (but only the events of 1670 - 1671, and S. Razin's Caspian campaign of 1667 - 1669 "they evaluate as an ordinary Cossack enterprise), and the Pugachev uprising.
The latter was distinguished by the fact that in it E. Pugachev and his Cossack entourage widely used the monarchical feelings of the people - much more widely than the differences, and about the same as False Dmitry I and II, I. Bolotnikov and the Cossack atamans began in the 17th century. In it, the elements of organization, expressed in the existence of the Pugachev Military Collegium, are most noticeable. The appearance of the leader himself was also distinguished by exceptional inconsistency. It is no coincidence, as Marina Tsvetaeva noted in the essay "Pushkin and Pugachev", under the pen of A. S. Pushkin the historian E. Pugachev in the "History Pugachev rebellion"appears to be a disgusting villain, and under the pen of A. S. Pushkin the artist in" Captain's daughter"- a romantic Leader who evokes sympathy, despite all the horror of what he has done. The end of E. Pugachev is also very unusual. So, if S. Razin was betrayed to the Russian authorities by Cossacks from among his enemies, then E. Pugachev was betrayed by his own entourage, hoping thereby to save his life.
Thus, the most important signs of peasant wars are the decisive role (at the stages that determine them) of the serfs and the expression in them of the aspirations of the serfs. Like all folk performances era of feudalism, peasant wars were a spontaneous protest of the people against the social relations that existed at that time and their craving for liberty. However, there is hardly any reason to evaluate them as a progressive phenomenon. freedom as the main objective of these movements was combined with bloody, barbaric, medieval methods of fighting for it. Like all civil wars, the peasant wars were a tragedy of the people and the country.
7.7. What are the main directions of Russia's foreign policy activities in XVIII in. ?
Foreign policy of the Russian state in the XVIII century. - one of the few activities that does not have serious criticism in historiography. Proponents of a civilizational approach to history believe that in the XVIII century. Russia faced a historical super-task - to enter the European community and gain a foothold in order not to lose national independence and not turn into a third-rate power. Such was the challenge of history. The answer was the transformation of Russia into a powerful empire, which absorbed a significant part of of Eastern Europe and all northern Asia, including part of the American mainland - Alaska.
17th century left as a legacy three unresolved foreign policy tasks - Polish, Swedish and Turkish. Russia had to return access to the Baltic Sea, return the western Russian lands lost during the Polish-Swedish intervention at the beginning of the 17th century, solve the southern problem - to protect its territory from raids Crimean Tatars and gain access to the Black Sea. All these problems were woven into common European politics, affecting the interests of the great European powers, since they narrowed the sphere of influence of the industrial and commercial bourgeoisie of the West, which had risen during this period.
Before Peter I, with whose name are associated major successes Russia on international arena, at the beginning of his reign there was an alternative: which direction - southern or northern - should be chosen as the main one? Depending on the choice, Sweden, Poland, Turkey, Austria could become allies or opponents.
The first major step in foreign policy was taken by Peter in 1695 in the direction traditional for Russia - to the south, to the shores of the Azov and Black Seas. The purpose of the military operations undertaken was Azov - the largest Turkish fortress at the mouth of the Don. The first Azov campaign ended unsuccessfully. Defeated, Peter did everything possible to ensure the success of the second campaign. In the summer of 1696, Azov was taken, but this did not solve the problem of access to the Black Sea. For further struggle with Turkey, it was necessary to strengthen the alliance with the European powers and adopt the "European science of winning." In 1697, Peter went as part of the Great Embassy to Europe. This trip turned the views of the young king. Deciding to Europeanize the country, he also dramatically changes foreign policy guidelines. Now his main task is to get to Baltic Sea, ensuring trade, cultural, diplomatic relations with the powers northwestern Europe. He makes peace with Turkey, finds allies to fight against the main rival in the Baltic States - Sweden, and in 1700 begins a protracted Northern War.
First stage Northern war was very heavy. But, having carried out reforms, creating an army and navy, overstraining the country's forces, Peter managed to make a turning point in the course of the war. The Battle of Poltava in 1709 is not only a moment military glory Russia. The recognition of Russia as a great European power begins with it. In 1721, peace was concluded between Russia and Sweden, according to which Russia acquired a significant part of the Baltic states and received access to the sea. The balance of power in Europe has changed. The authority of Russia increased to such an extent that the European powers recognized the proclamation in 1721 by the Senate of Peter I as emperor, and Russia as an empire.
Thus, one of critical tasks- Swedish, was resolved under Peter I. The decision of the other two is connected with the foreign policy activities of Catherine II, who continued to expand the boundaries of the empire, including all new territories in it.
Two victorious wars with Turkey (1768 - 1774 and 1787 - 1791) were marked major victories commanders P. Rumyantsev, A. Suvorov, G. Potemkin. At the conclusion of peace, Catherine II showed remarkable diplomatic skills. The result was the transformation of Russia into a Black Sea power, the strengthening of its positions in the Transcaucasus and the Balkans. The lands of the Black Sea coast from Kerch to the Dniester were transferred to Russia. In 1783, Crimea entered Russia peacefully. The development of the Russians began and Ukrainian peasants New Russia. Russian merchant ships were allowed free navigation from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean. The Black Sea Navy was created with the main base in Sevastopol, which served as the backbone of Russian influence in the region.
Catherine began her intervention in Polish affairs with the erection of one of her favorites, Stanislov Poniatowski, to the Polish throne, he was the last Polish king. This was followed by three partitions of Poland between Russia, Austria and Prussia: in 1772, 1793 and 1795. The original Polish lands, including Warsaw, went to Prussia and Austria. Most of the Ukrainian and Belarusian territories, as well as Lithuania, went to Russia. The process of incorporating Poland into the Russian Empire in 1815 under Alexander I, when, as a result of the decisions of the Congress of Vienna, the Kingdom of Poland was finally given to Russia.
Frightened by the French Revolution, at the end of the century Russian autocracy joined the struggle of European monarchs against a common threat. But this participation under Catherine II was very specific: she did not conduct military operations against France, but pushed other states to them, distracting them from Polish and Turkish affairs, in which it was Russia that began to play the “first violin”. Russia began military operations against revolutionary France during the accession of Paul I in 1796. The Russian squadron under the leadership of F. Ushakov became famous in the Mediterranean. A. Suvorov gained fame in the Alps. But the expediency for Russia of these military exploits is very doubtful, it is explained by Paul's desire to create an outpost of Russian influence in the Mediterranean Sea on the island of Malta. Pavel was knighted in the Order of Malta, and astonished Europe saw a new spectacle - the union of Russia and Turkey against France. But, having made a sharp turn, Paul becomes an ally of France against England. The death of the emperor did not remove the complex conflict in European politics, with which the country entered the 19th century.
7.8. What are the features of the Russian Empire?
The problems of the formation and functioning of the Russian Empire are at the center of scientific and political disputes. A number of researchers believe that the empire is one of the the best forms organization of the motley human community of Eurasia, providing a person with psychological and physical security. The merit of the empire also lies in the fact that it undermined the local character of historical development, including the peoples inhabiting it in a single world historical process. Another point of view is the assertion that Russia - the same artificial formation, like any empire, rested on the fear of the conquered peoples before military power metropolis, and therefore doomed to decay. The struggle between supporters of opposing evaluative concepts of the role and place of the Russian Empire escalated in connection with the collapse of the USSR, which was considered as its historical successor.
Empire is a very complex ethno-social and political spatial system. History knows many ancient and modern empires. Despite fundamental differences, they still have common classification features. Any empire unites ethnic and administrative-territorial formations under the authority of a strong centralized authority. Management is based on the relations of the metropolis-colony, center-province, center - national outskirts. Empires are characterized by national, historical, religious heterogeneity of their constituent parts. This form of statehood is characteristic of the most powerful powers gravitating towards the personal power of the head of state with a high political and social role army and the military element in general.
The Russian Empire was formed as a result of a long gathering of lands and the expansion of the state in breadth across the vast expanses of Eurasia. In the course of this process, Russia enclosed in a single political and administrative framework many different ethnic components, which it deprived of state independence, retaining a significant cultural autonomy and ensuring the stability of life. However, as elsewhere, the Russian state was an instrument of domination by a minority over the majority, and oppression was a natural mechanism for its regulation. Power was a burden on all subjects, including residents Russian center- ethnic Russians, who only formally acted as residents of the metropolis.
Imperial politics The Russian state took shape gradually, as the state grew stronger. Russia officially received the title of empire at the end of the reign of Peter I, who was proclaimed emperor after the successful end of the Northern War with Sweden. The completion of the formation of the empire in the outlines familiar to us occurs only in the 70s. 19th century The most rapid growth of the empire falls on the XVIII century. The active foreign policy of Russia during this period did not differ in any way from the behavior of European states in the 16th-17th centuries, but came at a time when the leading countries of the world had exhausted their possibilities for expansionist development, turning into colonial empires. The difference was that Russia pursued this policy not across the oceans, but in the territories directly adjacent to it. Therefore, the peoples were included in the Russian Empire by constantly moving its borders.
It should be noted that Russia has mid-seventeenth in. came out to the coast Pacific Ocean. After the Troubles of the beginning of the XVII century. it restored its statehood not as purely Russian, but as multinational, which included the peoples living beyond the Volga and the Urals. Special place occupies the transition under the arm of Moscow Ukraine after the war with Poland in the middle of the same century. Ukrainian lands that became part of Russia received autonomy, hetman rule. But this autonomy was significantly curtailed by Peter I and completely lost under Catherine II. 18th century - the time of expansion of the western and southern borders of Russia. As a result of the war with Sweden, most of the Baltic states join Russia with its German-Swedish nobility, German burghers, Estonian and Latvian peasantry. The rest of the Baltic Western Ukraine and Western Belarus, Lithuania entered the empire after the partition of Poland under Catherine II at the end of the century. The Russian-Turkish wars led to the inclusion of the Black Sea region, including the Crimea, into Russia. At the end of the century, the process of distribution begins Russian statehood in the Caucasus. It began with the signing of the Treaty of St. George in 1783 on the acceptance of the kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti (Eastern Georgia) under the protection of Russia. The entry of Transcaucasia into the Russian Empire was completed only in the first third of the 19th century. after a series of Russian-Turkish and Russian-Iranian wars.
The typology of the inclusion of regions and peoples in the empire is heterogeneous: from joining with the help military force before voluntary entry. Most often, Russia won back the territories they seized from other states. So, the Baltic states were taken away from Sweden, and from Turkey - Northern Black Sea region. There were also completely undisguised aggressions, for example, against Poland. And the voluntary entry of Georgia is optimal historical choice in the face of the threat of enslavement from a more aggressive neighbor - Turkey. Another thing is that each voluntary entry sooner or later ended with the liquidation of the promised state autonomy. The exception is perhaps Finland, which became part of Russia in the 19th century and managed to maintain elements of political independence.
Like any empire, Russia exercised strict centralized control, not stopping at the use of military force. But counting insults and oppression, we must also remember that with all the inconveniences and abuses of power, it ensured stability, a well-established life, production and trade, and reduced the danger of constant ethnic strife. And it was a blessing, even if you had to pay for it with independence.
The policy of tsarism was not the same everywhere. Thus, the Ukrainian and Belarusian people were looked upon as part of the Russian people. AT eastern lands management was carried out through local nobility. Russian nobility absorbed feudal lords of various ethnic background. The country was built taking into account the rights of each people to a certain way of life.
The peoples of Russia had a different everyday, religious, political culture, which weakened the unity of society. Overcoming spiritual disunity was carried out by involving the national cultural elite in the sphere of Russian culture. This had both positive and negative consequences: there was a Russification of the elite, the loss of its national roots.
Literature
1. Vodarsky E. Ya. Peter I // Questions of History, 1993, No. 6.
2. European Enlightenment and French 18th revolution century. M., 1988.
3. Kamensky A. B. Catherine II // Questions of History, 1989, No. 3.
4. Milov L. V. General and special of Russian feudalism // History of the USSR, 1989, No. 2.
5. Essays on Russian culture XVIII century, vol. I-IV. M., 1985 - 1990.
6. Soloviev V.I. Topical issues the study of popular movements (Polemical Notes on peasant wars in Russia) // History of the USSR, 1991, No. 3.
It was not in international relations. Moreover, historians consider the actions of the king on the world stage as one of the causes of the Time of Troubles. Did this really happen?
Foreign policy of Ivan the Terrible: south direction
As a rule, the southern direction was one of the most problematic in the history of our country. Moreover, it was observed as ancient period, as well as in subsequent ones. What was the problem? First, the south is the place of nomadic peoples. This means that their combat discipline and skill are higher. Secondly, there were no clear southern borders for our country, which affected the level of security. At this time, the tsar fought the Crimean khans, and an unsuccessful campaign in 1559 confirmed all fears. After 11 years, the Khan's return campaign destroyed Moscow.
Foreign Policy of Ivan the Terrible: Eastern Direction
The eastern direction at that time was probably the most successful in the entire history of our country. It was Ivan the Terrible who annexed such khanates as Kazan and Astrakhan. Thanks to the capture of Kazan, an amazing temple was erected in Moscow, which symbolizes the significance of this campaign to this day. In addition to the annexation of these territories, the development of Siberia began.
Foreign Policy of Ivan the Terrible: Western Direction
Attempts to establish themselves in the Baltic did not bring anything good to our state. Spontaneous and unprepared war turned out to be long, it caused heavy losses in conjunction with the decline economic condition countries. The Livonian War took place in three milestones. The first stage covered the years 1558-1561. Oddly enough, but they were very successful: Russian troops invaded Livonia, which led to the fall of Narva along with Dorpat, as a result - the collapse Livonian Order. The second stage (1561-1569) was less successful: the Russian soldiers received a number of defeats, and the fact that Ivan the Terrible's friend, Ivan the Terrible, went over to the side of Lithuania, intensified the disagreements within our army. Kurbsky wrote letters to the tsar, but he never received forgiveness. At the end of the stage, the Commonwealth is created, which gathers a strong union around itself. At the third stage of the Livonian War, the initiative passes entirely into the hands of the enemy. Smoothes the situation at this time only heroic defense city of Pskov. Thus, the war was lost.
The results of the foreign policy of Ivan the Terrible
The results of the king's performance on the world stage were very insignificant. In addition to the annexation of important khanates, Grozny did not receive any new lands, but, on the contrary, lost them. After the peace treaty signed in Yam-Zapolye, we lost Livonia and Polotsk, and after the Plus Agreement, Narva, Koporye, Ivangorod and Yam. Thus, the domestic and foreign policies of Ivan 4 were very contradictory. If in one he succeeded, although only in the first years of his reign, in another his success was much worse. The annexation of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates eclipsed the defeat in Livonian War, which dealt a crushing blow to the economy of the state and became a catalyst for troubled times.
Lesson Objectives: identify the factors that determined the nature of foreign policy; show its main directions; trace the change in the country's borders in the 17th century; evaluate the effectiveness of foreign policy activities.
Basic knowledge: causes and consequences of the Smolensk war; objective and subjective prerequisites, consequences of the reunification of Ukraine with Russia; the main results and significance of the Russian-Polish war of 1654-1667; causes and results Russian-Turkish war 1677-1681; Crimean campaigns of the Russian army; features of the development of Russian Siberia and Far East.
Educational environment: textbook, workbook, wall map “The growth of the territory of Russia in the 17th century. Peoples of Siberia and the Far East.
Internal connections: New story: international relationships in the 17th century
Persons: Alexei Mikhailovich, M. B. Shein, B. M. Khmelnitsky, V. V. Golitsyn.
Key concepts: .
Dates and events: 1632-1634 — Smolensk war with Poland; 1653 - the decision of the Zemsky Sobor on the inclusion of Ukraine into Russia; 1654-1667 - Russian-Polish war; 1677-1681 - Russian-Turkish war; 1687, 1689 - Crimean campaigns of the Russian army.
Characteristics of the main activities of the student (at the level learning activities): use historical map to characterize geopolitical position Russia in the 17th century; show on the map the territory of Russia and the lands annexed to it in the 17th century, the course of wars and the directions of military campaigns; explain what were the goals and results of Russia's foreign policy in the 17th century; disclose the causes and consequences of the accession of Ukraine to Russia, the development of Siberia and the Far East; explain meaning of concepts redneck, hetman, holytba, registered Cossacks.
Basic information
The main enemy of Russia in the XVII century. remained the Commonwealth (Poland). She did not recognize the rights of Mikhail Romanov to the throne, considering her prince Vladislav to be the Russian tsar. For Poland remained Smolensk lands captured from Russia during the Time of Troubles. Polish nobility(nobility) did not leave plans for a new campaign against Moscow.
The main result of the Smolensk War of 1632-1634. was the refusal of King Vladislav from claims to the Russian throne. It was a significant victory Russian side. However, the Smolensk War did not remove the existing contradictions with the Commonwealth.
Russian-Polish relations escalated even more in the context of the outbreak of the struggle Ukrainian people for independence. Bogdan Khmelnitsky, realizing that it would be difficult for the rebels to cope with Poland on their own, turned to Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich with a request to accept Ukraine into Russian state. On October 1, 1653, the Zemsky Sobor decided to include Ukraine into Russia and declare war on Poland. On January 8, 1654, a council was held in Pereyaslav - Rada, which brought together elected representatives from all classes of the Ukrainian population.
Russia's decision to take Ukraine into its structure caused new war with Poland. It began immediately after the Zemsky Sobor of 1653 and the Pereyaslav Rada, and went on for almost 15 years with varying success.
Russia was also interested in expanding its possessions in the south. Her opponents in this direction were the Crimean Khanate and Turkey.
Western Siberia was annexed to Russia as a result of the defeat Siberian Khanate as early as the end of the 16th century. The cities of Tobolsk, Tyumen, Berezov, Surgut, Tomsk and others arose here. In the 17th century. started and economic development boundless Siberian expanses. By the end of the 17th century, Russian possessions in Asia stretched to the coast of the Pacific and Northern arctic oceans. In the south they were limited by the zone of influence Chinese empire(mainly in the Far East and Transbaikalia), as well as the Kirghiz tribes (in Central Asia). In order to resolve Russian-Chinese contradictions in the Far East, the Nerchinsk Treaty was concluded between the two countries in 1689.
Plan for studying new material:
- Russia and the Commonwealth. Smolensk war.
- Reunification of Ukraine with Russia.
- Russian-Polish war (1654-1667).
- Russian-Turkish war (1677-1681).
- Crimean campaigns.
- Development of Siberia and the Far East.
During the classes
1. Talking about the relationship between Russia and the Commonwealth, the teacher poses questions to students: why did Poland remain the main adversary of Russia for most of the 17th century? What tasks did the Polish leaders set for themselves? What unresolved issues between Russia and Poland remained after the Time of Troubles?
According to the map “The growth of the territory of Russia in the 17th century. The peoples of Siberia and the Far East," students show which Russian lands remained part of Poland after the Time of Troubles. The teacher, in the course of the story, focuses the attention of schoolchildren on why the first war after the expulsion of the Poles from Moscow was called “Smolensk” by contemporaries and historians, what were its results and significance for Russia, what tasks were never solved during it.
2. When explaining the material on the reunification of Ukraine with Russia, it is important to remember when and why Ukrainian and Belarusian lands became part of Poland.
Questions and tasks for students: 1. What was the situation of the population of Ukrainian and Belarusian lands in the Commonwealth? 2. Compare the position of the peasants of Ukraine in the XVI - early XVII century. with the situation of the peasants in England, France, Russia. What was the more difficult situation of the Ukrainian population?
Talking about the liberation struggle of the Ukrainian and Belarusian peoples, the teacher uses the card "The uprising led by B. M. Khmelnitsky and the Russian-Polish war of 1654-1667." (p. 78 of the textbook), students perform task 3 to § 9 in parallel workbook.
Then, after listening to the teacher's story about Pereyaslav Rada, students analyze an excerpt from the speech of B. M. Khmelnitsky, delivered on January 8, 1654 in Pereyaslav:
For six years now we have been living without the Sovereign ... and we see that we can no longer live without the Tsar. To do this, we have gathered Rada ... to choose a sovereign from four. The first king is Turkish ... the second is the Crimean Khan, the third is the Polish king ... the fourth is Orthodox Great Russia Sovereign, king and Grand Duke Alexei Mikhailovich ...
The Turkish king is a busurman [non-believer] ... Crimean Khan also a bully. And an Orthodox Christian great sovereign- the king of eastern piety, one with us, Greek law, one confession ...
Questions for students: 1. Why Ukrainian Cossacks“could not live” without the sovereign for so long? 2. For what reason did they advocate the reunification of Ukraine with Russia, and not with other neighbors? 3. Is it possible to consider that Ukrainian politicians only used force Orthodox Russia to fight against Poland, not having in mind its development as part of a single Russian state in the future? 4. What do you see historical meaning reunification of Ukraine with Russia?
3. About the Russian-Polish war of 1654-1667. says the teacher, using the map "The uprising led by B. M. Khmelnitsky and the Russian-Polish war of 1654-1667." (p. 78 of the textbook). At the same time, it is important to show the historical significance of Russia's victory in the struggle for the liberation of Ukraine.
4. When explaining the material of this paragraph of the plan, the teacher needs to draw the attention of students to the fact that main reason Russian-Turkish war of 1677-1681 there was a clash of interests of Turkey, the Crimean Khanate, the Commonwealth and Russia in the issue of belonging to Ukraine. lingering bloody war ended
recognition by Turkey and the Crimean Khanate of entry Left-bank Ukraine into Russia. In the course of the story, the teacher actively uses the map “The growth of the territory of Russia in the 17th century. Peoples of Siberia and the Far East.
5. Question about Crimean campaigns Students study on their own by reading the relevant text of the textbook. Then the teacher has a conversation with the students.
Questions for students: 1. Why did Russia again face the Crimean Khanate after the Peace of Bakhchisarai? 2. Why did Russia join the anti-Turkish "Holy League"? 3. How prepared were the campaigns of V.V. Golitsyn in the Crimea? How did they end? How can you explain such a result of campaigns? 4. What is the historical significance of the Crimean campaigns?
6. The theme of the development of Siberia and the Far East can be studied through the work of students with historical sources. For example, with the “Instruction to the Yakut governor about yasak people” (1651), containing direct instructions for a careful, gradual bringing local population to the oath:
Yes, and in other new lands on great river Lena and along the Aldan and along the Chon and along the Vilyui and along other rivers, therefore, send for visiting and for the mine and for bringing under the sovereign ... the hand of service people ... and yasak from them [ local residents] collect ... with kindness, not cruelty ... and bring them to the sherti [oath] ... bring ... and don’t inflict any taxes and insults on yasak people, and you can’t drive them away from the sovereign’s high hands ... [Do not forcefully baptize the indigenous people, to yourself for do not take work into the yards, do not take it out to Moscow], so that the Siberian Lena land would expand, and not become empty. [Christened voluntarily] male to arrange in state service and make them up with the sovereign’s monetary and grain salaries, depending on the people, who is useful in what article, in the retired Russian service people of the place, zhonok and girls to marry newly baptized and Russian service people.
Conclusions. In the 17th century, as a result of exhausting wars and the activity of pioneers, the territory of Russia grew significantly. It included the lands of Siberia and the Far East, the Left-Bank Ukraine and the Smolensk region. The presence of such vast spaces opened up opportunities for the development of the country "in breadth", thereby slowing down the introduction of new methods of management, delaying the withering away of serfdom.
Homework.§ 9, questions and assignments to it. In the workbook: tasks 1, 2, 4-8 to § 9. Individual tasks: messages (with presentation elements) on the topics “S. I. Dezhnev”, “V. D. Poyarkov”, “M. V. Stadukhin”, “E. P. Khabarov.
Option 11.5
A1. famous marine battle during the Northern War:
a) Gangut c) Baltic
b) Azov d) Poltava
A2. First Russian newspaper, which was issued irregularly for the higher
a) Vedomosti
b) "Chimes"
c) "News"
d) "News"
3. Root fracture during the Great Northern War famous battle,
held….
a) near Poltava
b) near Narva
c) near the village of Lesnoy
d) off Grengam Island
A4.Petersburg was founded and became the capital of Russia in ….
a) in 1703 c) in 1725
b) in 1712 d) in 1700
A5. At the Battle of the Village Lesnoy, where the 16,000th Swedish corps was defeated
a) F. Lefort c) A. Menshikov
b) Peter I d) F. Apraskin
A6. Princess Sophia, seeking the throne, relied on ... ..
a) guards c) data people
b) archers d) Cossacks
A7 Slavic-Greek- the Latin Academy in Russia of the 18th century is ....
A8 Who was Simeon Polotsk?
a) Patriarch of Russia
A9 As a result What war did Russia gain access to the Baltic Sea?
a) Livonian c) Northern
b) Smolensk d) Seven-year
A10. What is their Did these events happen before all the others?
a) Azov campaigns of Peter I
b) the end of the Northern War
c) Battle of Poltava
11. What city became the "cradle of the Russian fleet":
A) Moscow
B) Kyiv
B) Voronezh
12. General battle during the Northern War took place:
A) near the village of Lesnoy
B) Near Poltava
B) at Cape Gangut
13. Which enterprises mainly built under Peter:
A) metallurgical and iron-working
B) Soap and flour mills
B) textile
14. Politics of Peter aimed at protecting Russian industry from foreign competition with the help of customs duties:
A) import
B) mercantilism
B) protectionism
15. Introduced Peter the highest administrative institutions, extending power in their areas of activity throughout the country:
A) the Senate
B) collegium
B) Synod
16. Document, which is in the system public service and advancement in positions on the 1st plan, personal merits and merits were put forward, and not “breed” - _____________________________
17. Match the date and event:
1. northern war A) 1700-1721
2. Azov campaigns B) 1725
3. Proclamation of Russia as an empire B) 1695-1696
4. Opening of the Academy of Sciences D) 1721
part B
1. Establish a correspondence between the concepts and their definitions:
1) manufactory
2) assembly
3) protectionism
a) the economic policy of the state aimed at supporting domestic production by restricting the import of goods and providing economic assistance to entrepreneurs;
b) meeting-ball with the participation of women in houses Russian nobility;
c) an enterprise with a division of labor, where each worker performs certain operations.
2. Find out military battles on maps and write the name and date;
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part C
Give a detailed answer:
1. The significance of the reforms of Peter the Great.
2. List the main battles of the Northern War?
Option 12.4
1. The capture of Azov by the troops of Peter I refers to:
a) 1695; b) 1696; c) 1697
2. Historians call the first half of the 18th century:
a) rebellious age; b) Time of Troubles; c) Peter's era.
3. What was the purpose of the great embassy:
a) find allies in the upcoming war against Sweden;
b) conclude a peace treaty with Poland;
c) get to know state structure western countries.
4. The Northern War falls on the period:
a) 1700-1706; b) 1700-1711; c) 1700-1721
5. As a result of the Northern War, the following was concluded:
a) Abo world; b) Stolbovsky world; c) Peace of Nystadt.
6. Absolutism is:
a) form feudal state, under which the monarch owns unlimited sovereignty;
b) tribal nobility;
c) awkward position, oversight.
7. Peter's innovations:
a) shaving beards
b) Russian people became literate and educated;
c) lost its independence.
8. Proclamation of Russia as an empire:
a) 1720; b) 1721; c) 1717
9. Cause North war was the desire of Russia:
1) get access to the Baltic Sea
2) expand the territory in the north
3) conquer the coast North Sea
4) prevent Sweden from joining the Northern Union
10 Earthen quadrangular fortifications, first used by the Russians during the Battle of Poltava:
1) recruits 3) galleys
2) redoubts 4) shipyards
12. What a battle Peter I called "the mother of the Poltava battle"?
1) battle near Narva
2) the battle of Grengam Island
3) the capture of the Notenburg fortress
4) battle near the village of Lesnoy
13. Aspiration to improve the armed forces of Russia forced Peter I:
1) start creating regular army
2) introduce a universal military service
3) cancel ranks and ranks in the army
4) limit the service life to 25 years
14 What did it lead to Russian victory in the Northern War?
1) to the exit to the shores of the North Sea
3) to dominance in the Black Sea
4) to the loss of independence by Sweden
15. Which of the following
1) manufactory production
3) agrarian overpopulation
16. Which of the following
A) V.V. Golitsyn
B) D.M. Pozharsky
C) F.Ya. Lefort
D) B.P. Sheremetev
D) A.G. Orlov
E) A.D. Menshikov
17. What were they called
1) orders
2) boards
3) ministries
4) Assembly
18. What was the name
1) Synod
2) By order of secret affairs
3) Senate
4) Supreme Privy Council
19. Which of the named concepts refers to the reforms of Peter I?
1) poll tax
2) redemption payments
3) three-day corvee
4) share
Part B
IN 1. Arrange the events of the Northern War in chronological order.
A. Battle of Lesnaya
B. Siege of Narva
B. Battle of Cape Gangut
D. Founding of St. Petersburg
Part C.
1. Describe state, military, administrative reforms
Peter 1. What did they lead to?
2. How do contemporaries evaluate the reforms?
3. Write 10 dates for the foreign policy of Peter the Great.
Option 13.1
A1. Princess Sophia, seeking the throne, relied on ... ..
a) guards c) data people
b) archers d) Cossacks
A2. The Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy in Russia in the 18th century is….
a) an organ of the highest class power
b) the first higher general education educational institution in Moscow and in Russia.
c) an advisory body royal court
d) department in charge school education
A3. Who was Simeon of Polotsk?
a) Patriarch of Russia
b) organizer Streltsy rebellion late 17th century
c) a major master of versification in the 17th century
A4. As a result of which war did Russia gain access to the Baltic Sea?
a) Livonian c) Northern
b) Smolensk d) Seven-year
A5. Which of the named events happened before all the others?
a) Azov campaigns of Peter I
b) the end of the Northern War
c) Battle of Poltava
d) the defeat of the Russians near Narva
A6. famous naval battle during the Northern War:
a) Gangut c) Baltic
b) Azov d) Poltava
A7. The first Russian newspaper, which was issued irregularly for higher
the court circle was called…….
a) Vedomosti
b) "Chimes"
c) "News"
d) "News"
A8. A radical change in the course of the Northern War was made by the famous battle,
held….
a) near Poltava
b) near Narva
c) near the village of Lesnoy
d) off Grengam Island
A9.Petersburg was founded and became the capital of Russia in ….
a) in 1703 c) in 1725
b) in 1712 d) in 1700
A10. In the battle near the village of Lesnoy, where the 16,000th corps of the Swedes was defeated
commanded the Russian troops ... ..
a) F. Lefort c) A. Menshikov
b) Peter I d) F. Apraskin
2) the collapse of the Northern Union
12. What was called in the reign Peter I civil servant who supervised the activities public institutions and officials?
1) fiscal
2) supreme
3) governor
4) viceroy
13. As a result
14. In 1722, Peter I accepted The decree on succession to the throne, as a result of which the sovereign received the right ...
15. Read the passage from the work of the historian V.O. Klyuchevsky and indicate to whom this characteristic refers.
1) Andrey Kurbsky
2) Ivan Shuvalov
3) Alexander Menshikov
4) Grigory Potemkin
16. Secularization- this is
17. In which row are the dates associated with the transformations of Peter I in the field of public administration?
1) 1613, 1653
2) 1711, 1718
3) 1741, 1767
4) 1802, 1810
Part 2.
1. Write five names of Peter's comrades-in-arms1 and how they became famous.
2. Write 10 dates related to domestic politics.
3. Describe the reforms in the field of culture, education and life in Peter1.
Option 16.7.
1. Which of the above refers to the reforms of Peter I in the field of culture?
1) the beginning of printing
2) foundation of the Kunstkamera
3) foundation of Moscow University
2. Which of the following characteristic of economic development Russia in the 17th century?
1) manufactory production
2) the beginning of the industrial revolution
3) agrarian overpopulation
4) the formation of a capitalist structure in industry
3. Which of the following persons refers to the companions of Peter?
A) V.V. Golitsyn
B) D.M. Pozharsky
C) F.Ya. Lefort
D) B.P. Sheremetev
D) A.G. Orlov
E) A.D. Menshikov
4. What were they called central state institutions created by Peter I?
1) orders
2) boards
3) ministries
4) Assembly
5. What was it called created in the first quarter of the 18th century. supreme legislative and judicial institution for Russian Orthodox Church?
1) Synod
2) By order of secret affairs
3) Senate
4) Supreme Privy Council
6. Which of the named concepts refers to the reforms of Peter I?
1) poll tax
2) redemption payments
3) three-day corvee
4) share
1) drastic change course of the Northern War
2) the collapse of the Northern Union
3) the loss of Riga and Revel by Russian troops
4) the loss of Narva by the Russian troops
8.. What was called in the reign of Peter I, a civil servant who supervised the activities of state institutions and officials?
1) fiscal
2) supreme
3) governor
4) viceroy
9.. As a result state and administrative reforms Peter I in Russia...
1) the absolute power of the monarch was established
2) increased role Zemsky Sobors
3) increased role Boyar Duma
4) the role of the Supreme Privy Council was established
10. In 1722 Peter I adopted the Decree on the succession to the throne, as a result of which the sovereign received the right ...
1) to transfer the throne strictly by inheritance
2) choose the heir together with the Senate
3) personally choose and appoint an heir
4) to pass the throne only through the male line
11. Read excerpt from the work of the historian V.O. Klyuchevsky and indicate to whom this characteristic refers.
“A man of dark origin,“ the lowest breed, below the nobility, ”in the words of Prince B. Kurakin, who barely knew how to sign for a salary and draw his first and last name, almost the same age as Peter, a companion of his military fun in Preobrazhenskoye and shipboard classes at Dutch shipyards , he, according to the recall of the same Kurakin, in the mercy of the king "ascended to such a degree that he ruled the whole state, read it, and was such a strong favorite that they only find it in Roman histories." He knew the king perfectly, quickly grasped his thoughts, carried out his most diverse assignments, even in the engineering part, which he did not understand at all, he was something of a chief commander.
1) Andrey Kurbsky
2) Ivan Shuvalov
3) Alexander Menshikov
4) Grigory Potemkin
12. Secularization- this is
1) the policy of providing economic assistance to entrepreneurs
2) active government intervention in economic life
3) state policy aimed at supporting domestic production
4) conversion by the state of church property into state property
13. In what a number of dates are given related to the transformations of Peter I in the field of public administration?
1) 1613, 1653
2) 1711, 1718
3) 1741, 1767
4) 1802, 1810
14. What century refers to the proclamation of Russia as an empire?
15. What is significant in the history of Russia in 1703?
1) the foundation of St. Petersburg
2) victory in Poltava battle
3) the beginning of the reign of Peter I
4) the opening of Moscow University
Part 2.
1. Find out who is pictured:
a) 
b) 
in) 
